Psychological experiment requirements types of advantages and disadvantages. Experiment as a research method
Advantages of the observation method:
1. Observation allows you to directly capture and record phenomena and situations.
2. Observation allows you to simultaneously capture changes, reactions of several objects in relation to each other or to certain tasks, objects, etc.
3. Observation allows research to be carried out regardless of the readiness of the observed objects.
4. Observation allows you to achieve multidimensional coverage, that is, fixation on several parameters at once.
5. Promptness of obtaining information.
6. The relative cheapness of the method.
Disadvantages of the observation method:
The disadvantages of the method can be reduced to two groups: objective (independent of the observer) and subjective (related to the personality and professional characteristics of the observer).
The objective disadvantages of the method include:
The limited, fundamentally private nature of each observed situation;
Difficulty, or even simply impossibility, of repeating observations;
The method is highly labor-intensive (a lot of time, participation of a large number of highly qualified researchers).
The subjective disadvantages include the following:
The difference in the social status of the observer and the observed, the dissimilarity of their interests, value orientations, behavioral stereotypes, etc.;
The attitudes of the observer and the observed affect the quality of information, since if the observed know that they are the object of observation, then the nature of their actions can artificially change out of a desire to adapt to what, in their opinion, the observer would like to see;
The mood of the observer, his concentration, the ability to holistically perceive the observed situation.
Specific requirements for the receipt procedure
and interpretation of information in observation:
1. Only external facts that have speech and motor manifestations are accessible to observation. What you can observe is not intelligence, but how a person solves problems; not sociability, but the nature of interaction with other people, etc.
2. It is necessary that the observed phenomenon, behavior, be defined operationally, in terms of real behavior, i.e. The characteristics recorded should be as descriptive and as less explanatory as possible.
3. The most important moments of behavior (critical cases) should be highlighted for observation.
4. The observer must be able to record the behavior of the person being assessed over a long period of time, in many roles and critical situations.
5. The reliability of observation increases if the testimony of several observers coincides.
6. Role relationships between the observer and the observed must be eliminated. For example, a student's behavior will be different in the presence of parents, teachers, and peers. Therefore, external assessments given to the same person for the same set of qualities by people occupying different positions in relation to him may turn out to be different.
7. Assessments in observation should not be subject to subjective influences (likes and dislikes, transfers of attitudes from parents to the student, from the student’s performance to his behavior, etc.).
8. Serious attention should be paid to the form of the protocol, which depends on the subject, objectives and hypothesis of the study that determine the observation criterion.
9. The observation method does not allow interference in the process being studied; therefore, the results of observation must necessarily be supported by data obtained using other methods of psychological and pedagogical research.
Experiment
An experiment in psychology and pedagogy is “a complex research method that provides a scientifically objective and evidence-based verification of the correctness of a hypothesis justified at the beginning of the study. It allows, more deeply than other methods, to check the effectiveness of certain innovations in the field of training and education, compare the importance of various factors in the structure of the pedagogical process and select the best (optimal) combination of them for the relevant situations, identify the necessary conditions implementation of certain pedagogical tasks. The experiment makes it possible to detect repeating, stable, necessary, essential connections between phenomena, that is, to study the patterns characteristic of the pedagogical process” (Yu. K. Babansky).
In contrast to the usual study of pedagogical phenomena in natural conditions through their direct observation, an experiment allows you to artificially separate the phenomenon being studied from others, and purposefully change the conditions of pedagogical influence on the subjects.
A pedagogical experiment requires a high methodological culture from the researcher, careful development of its program and a reliable criterial apparatus that allows recording the effectiveness of the educational process.
Thus, the essence of the experiment lies in the active intervention of the researcher in the psychological and pedagogical process with the aim of studying it in pre-planned parameters and conditions. The experiment combines methods of observation, conversation, surveys, etc. During the experiment, the researcher, of his own free will, causes or shapes certain psychological and pedagogical phenomena in various, predetermined conditions (which in most cases are also under his influence) . An experiment allows you to vary the factors that affect the processes and phenomena being studied and reproduce them repeatedly. Its strength is that it makes it possible to create new experiences under precisely defined conditions.
In pedagogy, there are several main types of experiment. First of all, there is a distinction between natural and laboratory experiments. Natural The experiment is carried out in real operating conditions for the subjects, but at the same time the phenomenon that should be studied is created or recreated. This type of experiment, due to the fact that it is carried out under normal conditions of activity of the subjects, makes it possible to disguise its content and goals and at the same time preserve the essence, which is the activity of the researcher in changing the conditions for performing the activity being studied.
When laboratory experiment, a group of subjects is allocated in the educational team. The researcher works with them using special research methods - conversation, testing, individual and group training and monitors the effectiveness of his actions. After the experiment is completed, the previous and newly obtained results are compared.
In psychological and pedagogical research there are also stating And formative experiments. In the first case, the researcher experimentally establishes only the state of the pedagogical system being studied, states the facts of the presence of cause-and-effect relationships, dependencies between phenomena. The data obtained can serve as material for describing the situation as established and recurring, or be the basis for studying the internal mechanisms of the formation of certain personality traits or qualities pedagogical activity. This provides the basis for constructing a study that allows us to predict the development of the properties, qualities, and characteristics being studied. When the researcher applies a special system of measures aimed at developing certain personal qualities in the subjects, increasing the effectiveness of educational or work activities, we are talking about formative experiment. It is focused on studying the dynamics of development of the studied psychological properties or pedagogical phenomena in the process of the researcher’s active influence on the conditions for performing the activity. Consequently, the main feature of a formative experiment is that the researcher himself actively and positively influences the phenomena being studied. This demonstrates the active role of pedagogy as a science, the active life position of a scientist, implementing the principle of the unity of theory, experiment and practice.
Also distinguished comparative And cross experiments. ABOUT comparative An experiment refers to those cases when the researcher selects the most optimal conditions or means of pedagogical activity, comparing control and experimental objects with each other. Such objects can be groups of students or those being educated. As a rule, in this case, special pedagogical changes are organized in experimental groups, which, in the opinion of the researcher, should lead to positive results. In control groups, such changes are not carried out. In this case, it becomes possible to compare the results obtained. There is another way to conduct a comparative pedagogical experiment: there is no control object, but several experimental options are compared so that the best one can be selected. If the researcher does not have the opportunity to select control and experimental groups that are approximately homogeneous in terms of quantitative and qualitative indicators (their composition is determined by preliminary control sections), then cross experiment. In this case, the control and experimental groups are swapped in each subsequent series of experiments. If a positive result is obtained in the experimental groups different composition, then this indicates the effectiveness of the innovation used by the researcher.
V.P. Davydov identifies two main types of pedagogical experiment - classical and multifactorial - from the point of view of logical structure.
Classic experiment involves, firstly, isolating the phenomenon under study from the influence of side, insignificant factors that obscure its essence, i.e., studying it in its “pure” form; secondly, repeated reproduction of the process under strictly fixed, controllable and accountable conditions; thirdly, systematic change, variation, combination of various conditions in order to obtain the desired result.
The essence of a classical experiment and its main functions are to test the hypothesis about the interdependencies between individual factors of psychological and pedagogical influence and its results, their cause-and-effect relationships. The experimenter identifies certain factors that are involved in the process under study. He changes conditions to determine what consequences their change will lead to, tries to establish how they affect the final result. The new conditions introduced are called independent variables and the changed factors are dependent variables. The effect of the changes made is judged by the results obtained.
In a classic experiment, after the control and experimental groups are formed, the latter is exposed to a new factor or, conversely, is isolated from the influence of any factor. It is important that other factors affecting the control and experimental groups remain relatively constant. This ensures the purity of the experiment. In practice, this is very difficult to achieve, since certain factors always vary during the research process, especially if it is quite long. Therefore, in order to prove that the effect obtained in the experiment is not accidental, during its development they plan to use special statistical methods processing the results obtained.
An experiment, the results of which are processed using the methods of mathematical statistics (mathematical theory expands the capabilities of the experiment, gives it an analytical-synthesizing character) is called multifactorial. In modern psychological and pedagogical theory and practice, processes occur whose mechanism cannot be studied directly, since many different elementary processes interact in them, which cannot be limited in real conditions. This is where a multifactorial experiment is needed. In this case, the researcher approaches the problem empirically - varies a large number of factors on which, as he believes, the course of the pedagogical process depends. He tries to find the optimal conditions for this process in terms of its result. In this case, as a rule, widespread use is envisaged modern methods mathematical statistics.
During the psychological and pedagogical experiment, a number of problems are solved:
Establish non-random relationships between the researcher’s influence and the results achieved; between certain conditions and the resulting effectiveness in solving pedagogical problems;
Compare the productivity of two or more options for psychological and pedagogical influence and select the optimal one according to the criteria of effectiveness, time, effort, means and methods used;
Discover cause-and-effect, natural connections between phenomena, present them in qualitative and quantitative forms.
Among the most important conditions The effectiveness of conducting a pedagogical experiment can be distinguished:
Preliminary thorough theoretical analysis of the phenomenon under study, its history, study of mass pedagogical practice to maximally narrow the field of experiment and its tasks;
Clear formulation of the objectives of the experiment, development of signs and criteria by which results, phenomena, means, etc. will be assessed;
Correct determination of the minimum necessary but sufficient number of experimental objects, taking into account the goals and objectives of the experiment, as well as the minimum required duration of its implementation;
The ability to organize during an experiment the continuous circulation of information between the researcher and the object of experimentation, which prevents projectism and one-sidedness practical recommendations, difficulties in using the conclusions. The researcher gets the opportunity not to limit himself only to reporting about means and methods, the results of their use, but to reveal possible difficulties in the course of psychological and pedagogical influences, unexpected facts, important aspects, nuances, details, dynamics of the phenomena being studied;
Proof of the availability of conclusions and recommendations made from experimental materials, their advantages over traditional, customary solutions.
Thus, we can formulate the following requirements for organizing and conducting an experiment:
High methodological culture of the researcher;
Careful development of the experimental program;
A reliable criterial apparatus that allows you to record the effectiveness of any process;
Preliminary, thorough theoretical analysis of the phenomenon under study, its history, study of mass pedagogical practice to maximally narrow the field of experiment and its tasks;
Concretization of the hypothesis in terms of its novelty, unusualness, inconsistency in comparison with the usual attitudes and views;
Correct determination of the minimum necessary but sufficient number of experimental objects, taking into account the goals and objectives of the experiment, as well as the minimum required duration of its implementation;
The ability to organize during the experiment the continuous circulation of information between the researcher and the object of experimentation, which prevents the one-sidedness of practical recommendations and difficulties in using the conclusions;
Proof of the availability of conclusions and recommendations made from experimental materials, their advantages over traditional, customary solutions;
Compliance with 3 stages of the experiment: preparatory- formulation of a hypothesis, that is, a position whose conclusions about the correctness should be verified, selection of the required number of experimental objects (number of subjects, study groups, etc.); determining the required duration of the experiment; development of a methodology for its implementation; selection of specific scientific methods for studying the initial state of an experimental object, etc.; direct experimentation– testing the effectiveness of new ways, means and methods; h The final stage is summing up the results of the experiment: description of the results of the implementation of the experimental system of measures (the final state of the level of knowledge, skills, etc.).
Testing
Test - (from the English test - test, research) - standardized procedure psychological dimension, serving the task of determining the severity of certain mental characteristics in an individual. Usually it consists of a series of relatively short tests, which can be various tasks, questions, situations. Allows the researcher to diagnose the degree of severity of the studied property in the subject, his psychological characteristics, as well as attitudes towards certain objects.
In psychodiagnostics, testing is understood as a standardized test designed to establish quantitative (and qualitative) individual psychological differences.
Main areas of testing application:
· Education– due to the increase in the duration of training and the complication of educational programs.
· Professional training and selection – due to the increasing complexity of production.
· Psychological counseling – due to the acceleration of sociodynamic processes and the complication of life.
Tests are classified according to various reasons:
1. By purpose of use(professional selection, clinical diagnosis, clarification of interests, preferences, etc.).
2. According to the form(individual and group).
4. By subject of testing(according to the quality assessed using this test):
· intellectual;
· personal;
· interpersonal.
5. By object of assessment:
· procedural tests;
· achievement tests;
· tests of states and properties.
6. According to the characteristics of the tasks used:
· practical;
· figurative;
· verbal (verbal).
7. According to the material used tests are distinguished:
· blank (done using pencil and paper);
· subject (tests of operating with certain objects, for example, tests of adding figures from parts);
· hardware (requiring special technical equipment).
8. According to the degree of homogeneity of tasks tests can be homogeneous (the tasks in them are of the same type) and heterogeneous (the tasks differ significantly).
Types of tests:
Intelligent are intended to assess the level of thinking (intelligence) of a person and his individual cognitive processes, such as perception, attention, imagination, memory and speech.
Personal– these are psychodiagnostic techniques aimed at assessing the emotional and volitional components of mental activity - relationships, motivation, interests, emotions, as well as the characteristics of an individual’s behavior.
Interpersonal allow us to evaluate human relationships in various social groups(sociometric test).
Practice tests include tasks and exercises that the subject must complete in a visually effective manner, i.e. practically manipulating real material objects or their substitutes.
Figurative tasks contain exercises with images, pictures, drawings, diagrams, ideas. They offer the active use of imagination, mental transformations of images.
Verbal tests include tasks for manipulating words. They involve, for example, definitions of concepts, inferences, comparisons of the volume and content of various words, performing various logical operations with concepts, etc.
Blank These are tests in which the subject receives test material in the form of various forms: drawings, diagrams, tables, questionnaires.
Hardware – tests that use various types of equipment to present and process test results (audio and video equipment, electronic computers).
Procedural are called tests with the help of which any psychological or behavioral process is studied, and as a result it is given an accurate qualitative or quantitative characteristic (the process of a person memorizing material, the process of interpersonal interaction of individuals in a group).
Achievement Tests– identify the degree of proficiency of the test subjects with specific knowledge, skills and abilities.
State and Property Tests concern the diagnosis of more or less stable psychological qualities of a person, such as personality traits, temperamental properties, abilities, etc.
Projective tests– a group of techniques intended for personality diagnosis, in which subjects are asked to react to an uncertain, ambiguous situation.
Test development takes place in four stages:
1. The initial concept is developed with the formulation of the main test points or main questions of a preliminary nature.
2. A selection of preliminary test items is carried out, followed by their selection and reduction to the final form, and at the same time an assessment is carried out according to qualitative criteria of reliability and validity.
3. The test is rechecked.
4. Attribution to age, level of education and other characteristics.
Rules for testing, processing and interpretation of results:
1. Before using the test, you need to try it on yourself or another person, which will avoid possible errors due to insufficient knowledge of its nuances.
2. It is important to ensure that before starting work, test takers clearly understand the tasks and instructions for the test.
3. During testing, all subjects must work independently without influencing each other.
4. For each test there must be a justified and verified procedure for processing and interpreting the results. This allows you to avoid errors that occur during this testing phase.
Requirements for the test:
· Strict formalization of all stages of testing.
· Standardization of tasks and conditions for their implementation
· Sociocultural adaptability of the test - compliance of test tasks and assessments with the cultural characteristics that have developed in the society where this test is used, having been borrowed from another country.
· Simplicity of formulation and unambiguousness of test tasks - in verbal and other test tasks there should not be such moments that can be perceived and understood differently by people.
· Limited time for completing test tasks - the total time for completing tasks of a psychodiagnostic test should not exceed 1.5-2 hours, because beyond this time it is difficult for a person to maintain his performance at a sufficiently high level.
· Availability of test norms for a given test - representative average indicators for a given test - that is, indicators representing a large population of people with whom the indicators of a given individual can be compared, assessing the level of his psychological development.
· Interpretation of results based on a previously obtained distribution for the characteristic being studied
· The test norm is the average level of development of a large population of people similar to the given test subject in a number of socio-demographic characteristics.
Survey methods
Survey method - psychological verbal-communicative method, which consists in carrying out interaction between the researcher and the subject by obtaining answers from the respondent to the questions asked. Currently, we can say with confidence that this method is the most common method of research and collection of primary information. Its popularity can be explained by the fact that verbal information obtained by this method is easier to quantify than non-verbal information. The advantages of this method include its versatility. During the survey, both the motives of individuals’ activities and the products of their activities are recorded. Likewise, skillful application closed options question allows you to use computer technology when processing and analyzing information obtained by survey method.
The use of a survey involves, firstly, an oral or written address by the researcher to a certain population of people with questions, the content of which represents the problem being studied at the level of empirical indicators. Secondly, registration and statistical processing the answers received, as well as their theoretical interpretation.
The survey method is most appropriate to use in a number of cases:
1) when the problem being studied is insufficiently provided with documentary sources of information, or when such sources are absent altogether;
2) when the subject of the study or its individual characteristics are not available for observation;
3) when the subject of study are elements of social or individual consciousness: needs, interests, motivations, moods, values, beliefs of people, etc.
4) as a control (additional) method to expand the possibilities of describing and analyzing the characteristics being studied and to double-check data obtained by other methods.
The survey should be preceded by:
1. Development of a research program,
2. Clear definition of goals, objectives, concepts (categories of analysis), hypotheses, object and subject
3. Sampling of research instruments.
Each survey involves an ordered set of questions (questionnaire) that serves to achieve the purpose of the study, solve its problems, prove and refute its hypotheses.
Survey methods, which are divided into conversation, interview and questionnaire, are a tool for sociological research, from which they were borrowed by teachers and psychologists. However, their use within the framework of psychological and pedagogical research has specific features.
Conversation
Conversation as a research method is largely an art. Its result largely depends on the personal qualities of the researcher.
The conversation is divided into: individual, group and collective.
The program is preliminarily determined: purpose, object, subject of conversation, individual questions and location.
The wording of questions should be clear and tactful.
· the presence of a clear conversation plan, thought out taking into account the characteristics of the individual and steadily implemented;
· people tend to willingly talk about those subjects that interest and fascinate them (profession, hobby), so it is important to first find out about the prevailing interests of a given student or group;
· the reason for starting a conversation can be objects, situations or events of an emotional nature; at the same time, you should avoid things that are unpleasant for the interlocutor to remember;
· it is important to create an atmosphere of trust and observe pedagogical tact; a person must be sure that the results of the conversation will not become a source of trouble for him;
· discussion of issues of interest to the researcher from various angles and connections;
· varying questions, posing them in a form convenient for the interlocutor;
· ability to use the situation, resourcefulness in questions and answers;
· talk only on issues directly related to the problem under study;
· select and pose questions in an understandable form that encourages respondents to give detailed answers; avoid incorrect questions, take into account the mood and subjective state of the interlocutor;
· do not conduct a conversation in a hurry or in an excited state;
· a favorable environment for conversation is a familiar and natural environment;
· choose a place and time for the conversation so that no one interferes with its progress and maintains a friendly attitude;
· the conversation process is not accompanied by logging, but the researcher, if necessary, can make some notes for himself that allow him, after finishing the work, to completely restore the entire course of the conversation, but it is better to fill out the diary and protocol after the conversation.
Interview
Interview[English] interview] in scientific research, a type of conversation for the purpose of collecting material for study and generalization. If in a conversation there is a conversation, that is, an exchange of information, each of the participants can ask or answer a question, then in an interview one asks the other, but does not express his own opinion.
Interviews can be individual or group.
The interviewing method is useful when the researcher is confident in advance of the objectivity of the respondent’s answers, since the interview does not involve a series of clarifying questions, as in a conversation. Interviews based on objectives are divided into opinion interview(study people’s attitudes towards phenomena) and documentary interview(specify facts, events). A documentary interview is characterized by greater reliability of information.
The following types of interviews are distinguished:
Standardized – questions are offered in a certain sequence. The diagram also contains the necessary explanations for the questions, as well as a description of the situation in which the survey should take place (in an apartment, in a classroom, in the school yard during a walk). The advantage of a standardized interview is that it follows the basic measurement principle of making information comparable; it reduces to a minimum the number of errors when formulating a question.
Non-standardized - The wording and sequence of questions along the way can be replaced and changed from the original plan. A non-standardized interview is most often used at the beginning of a study, when it is necessary to clarify the issues, once again check the main provisions of the information collection plan, and determine the object of the study. In this case, only the topic within the framework of the conversation is set for the survey. The interviewer directs the survey in the right direction only with the help of intermediate questions. The respondent has the optimal opportunity to express his position in the most convenient form.
Semi-standardized or focused interview - the interviewer is guided by a list of both strictly necessary and possible questions.
The main difference between an interview and a questionnaire is the method of communication between the researcher and the respondent. When conducting a survey, it is completely mediated by the questionnaire: the surveyor is passive, the content and meaning of the questions are interpreted by the respondent himself in accordance with the ideas and beliefs that he has formed regarding the essence of the problem being discussed. The respondent independently formulates his answer and records it.
When conducting an interview, contact between the interviewer and the interviewee is carried out directly; the interviewer organizes the interview, asks questions, conducts the conversation, directs it, and records the answers received. The interviewer can clarify the wording of the questions asked if the respondent does not understand them, and also clarify the respondent’s point of view, ask him additional information for the purpose of adequate, accurate representation of it in the questionnaire (which is impossible with a questionnaire).
At the same time, it is obvious that to obtain the same amount of information in the case of using the interview method, much more time will be spent than when using the questionnaire method.
Ensuring the anonymity of the conversation becomes problematic. Conducting an interview requires organizational preparation, which involves choosing the place and time of the interview.
The location of the interview is determined by the specifics of the subject of research. In any case, the environment in which the interview is conducted should be calm and confidential, i.e. without the presence of unauthorized persons at a time convenient for the respondent.
The work of the interviewer himself involves the following tasks:
1) establishing contact with respondents;
2) correct positioning interview questions;
3) correct recording of answers.
After completing work at the information collection site, the interviewer must submit the following documents: completed interview forms, route sheets, work reports. After checking all these documents, the analysis of interview forms begins in order to obtain generalized information about the phenomenon being studied.
Distinguish individual(a one-on-one conversation between an interviewer and one interviewee in a confidential atmosphere in the absence of outside observers) and group(group influence is studied, not the individual opinions of individuals) interviews.
Questionnaire
Questionnaire– a written form of survey, carried out, as a rule, in absentia, i.e. without direct and immediate contact between the interviewer and the respondent. It is useful in two cases:
a) when to ask big number respondents for relatively a short time,
b) Respondents should think carefully about their answers with the printed questionnaire in front of them.
The use of questionnaires to survey a large group of respondents, especially on issues that do not require deep thought, is not justified. In such a situation, it is more appropriate to talk with the respondent face to face.
Questioning is rarely continuous (covering all members of the community being studied); much more often it is selective. Therefore, the reliability and reliability of the information obtained by questionnaire depends on the representativeness of the sample.
When conducting a questionnaire survey, three stages are carried out:
1) preparatory stage(including the development of a survey program, drawing up a plan and network schedule for the robot, designing tools, pilot testing them, reproducing tools, drawing up instructions for the questionnaire, respondent and other persons participating in the survey, selection and training of interviewers, questionnaires, solving organizational problems).
2) operational stage– the survey process itself, which has its own stages of gradual implementation;
3) resulting stage– processing of received information. Based on the structure of the method, its characteristics are determined, which includes a number of requirements for the initial documents of the questionnaire survey, for the questionnaire, for the respondent and for the instrument itself (for the questionnaire, questionnaire).
Any questionnaire includes three main parts:
1) introductory;
3) the final part (passport).
The introduction indicates who is conducting the research, its purpose and objectives, the method of filling out the questionnaire, emphasizes the anonymous nature of its completion, and also expresses gratitude for participating in the survey. The introductory part also includes instructions for filling out the questionnaire.
The passport (demographic part) contains information about respondents in order to verify the reliability of the information. These are questions relating to gender, age, education, place of residence, social status and origin, work experience of the respondent, etc.
Psychology still lacks a generally accepted view of experiment, its role and possibilities in scientific research. The founder of the Leningrad school of psychology, B. G. Ananyev, especially emphasized the role of experiment in psychological research.
Psychology as a science began with the introduction of experiment into its arsenal of methods and has been successfully using this tool for obtaining data for almost 150 years. But throughout these 150 years, debates have not stopped about the fundamental possibility of using the experiment in psychology.
"Psychological experiment- this is a joint activity of the subject and the experimenter, which is organized by the experimenter and aimed at studying the characteristics of the psyche of the subjects.
The process that organizes and regulates joint activities is communication. Main components of the experiment are:
1) subject (subject or group being studied);
2) experimenter (researcher);
3) experimental conditions (additional to the stimulation of the influence on the subject, which can influence his responses).
4) stimulation (stimulus selected by the experimenter, directed at the subject) - the independent variable is the main component of the experimental situation (stimuli, any external experimental condition, any internal additional variable, method of performing the experimental task, stimulation mode). It is its effect on the subject that is studied in the experiment through the study of his reactions. Having provided acceptable external and internal conditions for the experiment, the experimenter begins to directly present the stimulus material to the subject and record his responses, systematically monitoring the constancy of the created conditions;
5) the subject’s response to stimulation (his mental reaction) is the external reality by which one can judge the processes occurring in his internal subjective space. These processes themselves are the result of the effects of stimulation and experimental conditions on it.
Stages scientific research:
| I. Statement of the scientific problem | - formulation research topics; - definition object and subject research; - formulation of general goals research. |
| P. Theoretical analysis of the problem | - analysis of scientific literature on the research topic; - author's model the phenomenon under study. |
| III. Formulating hypotheses | - hypothesizing research; - formulation of objectives research. |
| IV. Planning and conducting the study | - program development research; - conducting research. |
| V. Analysis and interpretation of the results obtained | - qualitative and quantitative data analysis; - examination statistical significance results; - interpretation of results research. |
| VI. Formulation of conclusions | - formulation theoretical conclusions; - development practical recommendations. |
Types of experiment
There are many views on the differentiation of experimental techniques and a significant number of terms denoting them. If we summarize the results in this area, then the totality of the main types of experiment can be presented in the following form:
I. On the validity and completeness of the procedure
Real (specific)
An experiment carried out in reality under specific experimental conditions. It is real research that provides factual material used for both practical and theoretical purposes.
Mental (abstract)
An imaginary experience that cannot be achieved in reality. Mental manipulations regarding the organization and conduct of a planned real experiment in the future. Such a preliminary “playing out” of real experience in the mind is, in fact, its obligatory attribute, implemented on preparatory stages research (problem formulation, hypothesis development, planning).
II. According to the purpose of the experiment
Research
Experience aimed at gaining new knowledge about the object and subject of study. It is with this type of experiment that the concept of “scientific experiment” is usually associated, since the main objective science – knowledge of the unknown.
Experiment in sociology is a method of collecting and analyzing empirical data aimed at testing hypotheses regarding causal relationships between social phenomena. In a real experiment, this test is carried out by the experimenter’s intervention in the natural course of events: he creates or finds a certain situation, activates a hypothetical cause and observes changes in the situation, recording their compliance or non-compliance with the hypothesis.
Hypothesis is a proposed model of the phenomenon under consideration. Based on this model, the phenomenon being studied is described as a system of variables, among which an independent variable (experimental factor) is identified, subject to the control of the experimenter and acting as a hypothetical cause of certain changes in the dependent variable. Non-experimental variables are properties and relationships that are essential to the phenomenon being studied, but since their influence is this experiment are not examined, they must be neutralized (isolated or made permanent).
Social experiment performs two main functions: achieving an effect in practical transformative activities and testing a scientific hypothesis. In the latter case, the experimentation procedure is entirely focused on the cognitive result. An experiment serves as the most powerful way to test an explanatory hypothesis.
The logic of experimental analysis was proposed by J. Stuart Mill back in the 19th century. and has not undergone significant changes since then.
Basic requirement of any scientific experiment- elimination of uncontrollable factors. J. Mill completely denied the possibility of scientific experimentation in social sphere due to the difficulty of balancing multiple variables.
The main features of a social experiment are:
Active intervention of the researcher in the system of phenomena being studied;
Systematic introduction of a relatively isolated experimental factor, its variation, possible combination with other factors;
Systematic control over all significant determining factors;
The effects of changes in dependent variables must be measured and unambiguously reduced to the influence of the independent variables (experimental factor).
The structure of a social experiment can be presented as follows:
1. Experimenter. This is usually a researcher or group of researchers who designs and conducts an experiment.
2. Experimental factor (or independent variable) - a condition or system of conditions that are introduced by a sociologist. The independent variable must, firstly, be controllable, i.e. its direction and intensity of action must be in accordance with program settings; secondly, it is controlled if its qualitative and quantitative characteristics are revealed within the framework of the experimental program.
3. Experimental situation - a situation that is created in accordance with the research program for conducting an experiment. An experimental factor is not included in the conditions of the experimental situation.
4. An experimental subject is a group of individuals who agreed to participate in an experimental study
Vary the following types experiments:
a) by the nature of the objects - economic, pedagogical, legal, aesthetic, sociological, socio-psychological. Each of the experiments differs from each other in specifics (for example, in sociology, an economic experiment is understood as the direct impact of specific changes economic conditions on people's consciousness and changes in their interests);
b) according to the specifics of the tasks - research and practical. During a research experiment, a hypothesis is tested that contains scientific information that has not yet found sufficient confirmation or has not yet been proven at all;
c) natural (field) and laboratory experiments.
Experiment program is a description of an experimentally verifiable hypothesis and procedures for testing it (system of variables, experimental factor, experimental situation (conditions), experimental and control groups, experimental instruments).
The experimental tools include a protocol, a diary and an observation card.
The main resulting document of the experimental method is experimental protocol, which should reflect following positions:
1. Name of the topic of the experiment.
2. The exact time and place of its holding.
3. Clear formulation of the hypothesis being tested.
5. Characteristics of dependent variables and their indicators.
6. Essential description of the experimental group.
7. Characteristics of the control group and principles of its selection
8. Description of the experimental situation.
9. Characteristics of experimental conditions.
10. Progress of the experiment, i.e. its setting:
A) before the introduction of the experimental factor;
B) in the process of entering it;
B) after its administration;
D) after the end of the experiment.
11. Assessment of the purity of the experiment and the instruments used.
12. Conclusion on the reliability of the hypothesis.
13. Other conclusions.
14. Information about the authors of the protocol and the degree of their consent.
15. Date of signing the protocol.
Since the experimental method is more complex than others, errors are often made in its application. Let's name some of the most common:
1. The experiment is carried out to obtain information that can be obtained in other, simpler ways.
2. An included or standardized non-involved observation is given as an experiment.
3. There is no organic connection between the experiment and the purpose, objectives and hypotheses of the study.
4. There was ambiguity or other significant significant inaccuracy in the formulation of the hypothesis submitted for experimental testing.
5. The theoretical system of variables is constructed incorrectly, causes and consequences are confused.
6. The experimental factor (independent variable) was chosen arbitrarily, without taking into account the fact that it should play the role of a determinant and be controllable by the researcher.
7. The independent and dependent variables were not adequately reflected in empirical indicators.
8. The impact on dependent variables of factors not included in the independent variable is underestimated.
9. The experimental situation is not clearly defined, due to which the experiment is carried out in violation of its conditions.
10. Subjective assessments of the experimental situation prevail over objective characteristics.
11. During the experiment, the following were revealed important properties experimental group, which were not known before it began.
12. The control group is not an analogue of the experimental group in terms of parameters essential for the study
13. Control over the course of the experiment was weakened and/or ineffective.
14. The experimental instruments are aimed only at recording certain data (similar to an observation instrument), and not at maintaining the purity of the experiment.
15. The conclusions of experimenters are adjusted (adjusted) to the hypothesis without sufficient grounds.
Advantage of the method social experiment - identifying cause-and-effect relationships.
Disadvantages of the method are the complexity and high cost of the organization.
22. SURVEY METHOD IN SOCIOLOGY: GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS, VARIETIES, WAYS TO INCREASE THE RELIABILITY OF INFORMATION.
Sociological survey is a method of obtaining primary sociological information, based on direct or indirect communication between the researcher and the respondent in order to obtain from the latter the necessary data in the form of answers to the questions posed.
There are two types of surveys: questionnaires and interviews.
1.Questionnaire - It is a written survey in which communication between the researcher and the respondent is mediated by a questionnaire.
Group survey - This is a method of a one-time written survey of a group of respondents gathered at a certain time and place (audience), and carried out in accordance with the requirements of the sampling procedure.
When conducting individual survey using a handout questionnaire, the sociologist conducting the survey either hands the questionnaire to the respondent, agreeing on the deadline for returning it at the next meeting, or, having explained the purpose of the survey and the rules for filling out the questionnaire, waits for the respondent to complete this procedure and return the questionnaire.
Depending on the nature and method of combining respondents There are several options for surveys in groups: 1. Handout survey type, when the questionnaire is distributed to respondents for individual completion by each of them, we have only characterized it.2. Postal survey, in which a questionnaire is sent to potential respondents with prior consent and received by the researcher via mail. 3. Telephone surveys carried out through telephone communication with respondents have become quite widespread in Lately. The sampling frame for such a survey is usually telephone directories, which list all subscribers to residential telephone numbers in alphabetical order. One of the main requirements for a sociologist in such a survey is the ability to arouse the respondent’s interest in the research topic and support him during the interview. The main advantage of a telephone survey is the efficiency and low cost of conducting it. 4. Press surveys- this type of mass survey, which is carried out by publishing a questionnaire in the press with a simultaneous request addressed to readers to answer the published questions. 5. Sociometric survey- a specific survey method used when studying direct contacts and interpersonal relationships in small social groups. Based on the level of competence of the persons involved in the survey, there are two types of surveys:Mass survey- this is a way of studying the opinions of various groups of the population, who are not specialists in the problem under study, about various areas public life, phenomena, processes, events occurring in them. Expert survey - This is a type of research in which experts on the problem being studied are interviewed. Its specificity lies in the fact that this survey, unlike a mass survey, is not anonymous, since it is focused on the active cooperation of the researcher and the respondent in clarifying the essence of the problem posed. The selection of experts according to their level of competence is very important.
Sociological questionnaire - This is a system of questions, united by a single research plan, aimed at identifying the opinions and assessments of respondents and obtaining from them information about social facts, phenomena, and processes.
The questionnaire is strictly structured: The first part of the questionnaire called introductory, second part of the questionnaire called basic. It contains blocks of questions aimed at obtaining the necessary information. The third part of the questionnaire called passport. It clarifies the social and demographic characteristics of the respondents: gender, age, Family status, education, social background, profession, education, place of study and so on.
Types of questions: By content The questions formulated in the questionnaire are divided into following types:Questions about facts the purpose of which is to obtain information about social phenomena and processes. Questions about opinions, aimed at finding out the opinions of respondents regarding certain social, economic, political events existing in the country, in the region, in the enterprise, etc. situations. Questions about knowledge, focused on finding out what and to what extent the respondent knows about the problem, situation, etc. of interest to the researcher. Questions about grades aiming to find out respondents’ assessment of certain phenomena, processes, events. Questions about respondents' attitudes to any processes, phenomena, authorities, parties, etc. Questions about motives aimed at clarifying respondents’ subjective ideas about the motives of their actions or assessments. In its own way logical direction Questions in a sociological questionnaire are also divided into several types:
Main questions - the researcher receives most information of interest to him about the social object under study. Control questions are used to check the stability, correctness, consistency and sincerity of the respondent's answers. Filter questions are used in cases where the required information can be obtained not from the entire population of respondents, but only from a certain part of it. Each such block of questions opens with a filter question, which is accompanied by a link to which question the interviewer should proceed to fill out in order to identify the carriers of the necessary information. By the nature of the answers or filling technique The questionnaire identifies the following types of questions: 1. Closed questions varieties: menu question. This is a question in which the respondent is offered a number of answers and can choose several of them.
Dichotomous (alternative) questions require answers from respondents based on the “yes/no” principle, are mutually exclusive, and the alternatives themselves must be balanced. 2. Open question. 3 Half-closed questions(+other).5 Direct questions - This is a type of question that allows you to find out your position or attitude towards any problem, event, fact, etc. 6. Indirect questions - These are questions that are asked in cases where the respondent is not entirely comfortable asking something directly or there is an assumption that they will not receive sincere answers.
2. Interviewing is a method of obtaining primary sociological information through direct conversation between the interviewer and the respondent. The sociological interviewing procedure includes: 1) choosing an object; 2) determining the place and time of the interview; 3) recording the respondents’ answers; 4) final design of materials and their theoretical generalization.
Types of interviews:1. Free (non-standardized) interview - This is a long, sometimes up to 2-3 hours, conversation between the interviewer and the respondent, which is carried out according to the general research program without strictly detailing the questions.
2. Standardized (formalized) interview in the form of certain blocks of closed questions, accompanied by certain answer prompts. 3. Semi-standardized interview - This is a method of obtaining information from respondents that combines the features of both formalized and informal interviews when interviewing specialists - experts on the problem being studied.
According to the procedure interviews are divided into: 1. Individual interview - This is a way of collecting empirical sociological information, which is carried out by the interviewer in his individual conversation “face to face” with the person being interviewed. 2. Group interview - This is a method of obtaining information when the interviewer communicates with a whole group of respondents, but listens to their answers to the questions posed from each one in turn, individually. 3. Panel interviews represent a process of repeated, repeated interviewing of the same respondents on the same questions at certain intervals - after six months, a year, three years, etc. The purpose of this method of interviewing is to check changes in opinions, positions, value judgments, and value orientations of the persons being surveyed on the problem under study. 4. In-depth interview - These are interviews aimed at obtaining in-depth information, rich in a large volume of content, both about social events and the actions of people, including those interviewed, and about internal motivations, inclinations, motives for actions and assessments expressed by interviewees. 5. Focused interviews - This is the collection of information on a very specific issue, most often used in marketing research. By type of respondents interviews can be: 1) with a responsible or very famous person; 2) with an expert; 3) with an ordinary respondent.
Recording respondents' answers. Methods: recording during a conversation, recording from memory, mechanical sound recording using a tape recorder.
Ways to increase the reliability of information: Reliability sociological information - qualitative and quantitative characteristics of research data, with the help of which it is established: the validity (validity) of information, procedures for analysis and collection of information, their compliance with theoretical and methodological requirements; stability of information, i.e. reproducibility and similarity of measurement results under different conditions. Credibility research results - a characteristic of their quality, the correspondence of the conclusions drawn to the actual state of the object being studied depends on the reliability of the data and the correctness of the theoretical conclusions.
23. Methodological support for the survey: its types and features in various methods survey.
In sociology, it is customary to distinguish between written (questioning) and oral (interviewing), face-to-face and correspondence (postal, telephone, press), expert and mass, selective and continuous (for example, referendum), national, regional, local, local, etc.
Questioning. Based on the number of respondents, a distinction is made between group and individual questioning. Depending on the location, surveys are conducted at home, at work, and in target audiences (visitors to stores, exhibitions, etc.).
According to the method of distributing questionnaires, there are distribution questionnaires (distributed to respondents by the questionnairer himself), postal questionnaires (distributed by mail), and press questionnaires (published in a newspaper or magazine). Various combinations These characteristics form many types of questionnaires.
A type of continuous survey is a census, in which the entire population of the country is surveyed.
A sample survey (as opposed to a continuous survey) is a more economical and no less reliable method of collecting information, although it requires sophisticated methods and techniques. Its basis is a sample population, which is a smaller copy of the general population. The general population is considered to be the entire population of the country or that part of it that the sociologist intends to study, and the sample population is the set of people interviewed directly by the sociologist.
Interviewing is a method of obtaining primary sociological information through direct, focused conversation between the interviewer and the respondent.
Types of interviews. The interview can be conducted at the place of work (study) or at the place of residence (home) - depending on the nature of the problems and the goal. Based on the interview technique, interviews are divided into formalized (standardized) and free (non-standardized).
An analysis of publications containing the results of sociological research shows that almost 90% of the data available in them was obtained using one or another type of sociological survey.
No. 24 Questionnaire. The essence of the method, features of implementation, disadvantages.
Questionnaire is a written survey in which communication between the researcher and the respondent is mediated by a questionnaire. A feature of a questionnaire survey is that the respondent independently works with the questionnaire: understands the question, thinks about it and independently registers the answer. The survey method can be written in person or in absentia (by mail). Depending on the type of survey, there are express surveys, group or individual, mail or press (newspaper). The popularity of this method is due to its efficiency and cost-effectiveness. IN short term with a small number of questionnaires it does not require a significant amount of time and financial costs. Questioning can be group or individual. Group questionnaire surveys are widely used at places of study and work. Provides full return of questionnaires. Individual questioning is a way of conducting a one-on-one survey with a questionnaire. Sociological questionnaire– a system of questions united by a single research design, aimed at identifying the opinions and assessments of respondents and obtaining information from them. The questionnaire should not be too long. The time it takes to fill it out is 40-45 minutes for an adult, and 10 minutes for a student. less. Security seats, handles. The questioner’s task is to be friendly, polite... In case of refusal, try to convince, but not put pressure on the person.
The advantage of a questionnaire is that the respondent is free to choose an answer to a question, to express his opinion, and to choose an answer to a question. The influence of the researcher on the course and result of the survey is minimized. In addition, the survey procedure itself ensures complete anonymity, confidentiality of information and the complete absence of communicative psychological barrier between the questionnaire and the respondent. Its main disadvantage is the inability to clarify, specify the respondent’s answer, or explain the content of the question.
One of the oldest and most popular methods of scientific research in psychology is the natural experiment. Scientists resorted to “his services” thousands of years ago, and in modern conditions it has acquired special effectiveness.
What is the essence of a natural experiment in psychology?
A natural experiment is also called a field experiment because it is carried out under “field” conditions. The object lives its normal life (albeit, set in a certain direction, desired by the experimenter) and the intervention of the subject is minimal. The latter is actually an observer.
If ethical considerations permit, the subject is not informed about the experiment, and neither he nor other people suspect anything. From the outside it seems that no experiment is being carried out at all. Natural experiment is very often used in psychology, especially in its social section.
Natural experiment in psychology: pros and cons
A natural experiment in psychology has a huge advantage over a laboratory experiment. After all, the familiar conditions in which the subject is located allow him to feel calm. He does not tense up and acts as he naturally does. And this allows the researcher to draw more adequate conclusions.
For a long time it was believed that a natural experiment is inferior to a laboratory experiment in the accuracy of recording the results. After all, organize in field conditions This process was indeed difficult. But the key word here is “was.” Today, with the availability of high-tech equipment, it is quite possible to fill this gap and obtain results that are even much more accurate than with a laboratory experiment.
Natural Experiment Techniques
A natural experiment, although very close to observation, is still not one. This method assumes only the appearance of the object's ordinary life. In fact, the experimenter creates certain conditions in which it will take place. And then he observes the behavior of the subject in them.
There are several techniques and forms for creating certain conditions during a natural experiment. Among them:
- Introductory tasks - the subject is given one or another task and the experimenter is interested in how the subject will behave.
Formative (or educational) experiment - the object is also given a task. But its goal is to develop certain skills or abilities. And the experimenter observes the process and draws conclusions.
Transformation of the conditions of activity - the structure of activity (for example, professional) changes radically. Emphases are shifted, control levers are placed, new stimuli are introduced, the emotional background is “colored” in unusual shades, and the results of the activities of the group of people under study (or an individual) in new conditions are recorded.
Creating a model - this technique is used in cases where it is impossible to simply conduct a survey, test, experiment or observation in real operating conditions. Then an artificial model is created that repeats the parameters and properties of the natural “field”.
Observation- one of the main methods of collecting primary information, consisting in the systematic and purposeful perception and recording of mental phenomena in certain conditions.
The most important advantage of the observation method lies in the fact that it is carried out simultaneously with the development of the phenomena and processes being studied. The opportunity opens up to directly perceive people’s behavior in specific conditions and in real time and in natural conditions.
Observation allows you to broadly, multidimensionally cover events and describe the interaction of all its participants. It does not depend on the desire of the observed to speak out or comment on the situation.
The objective disadvantages of the observation method primarily include:
- the limited, fundamentally private nature of each observed situation;
- complexity, and often simply impossibility of repeating observations.
- high labor intensity of the method.
The subjective difficulties are also varied. The quality of primary information may be influenced by:
- the difference in the social status of the observer and the observed, the dissimilarity of their interests, value orientations, behavioral stereotypes, etc.;
- The quality of information is affected by both the attitudes of the observed and the observer. If the observed know that they are the object of study, they can artificially change the nature of their actions, adapting to what, in their opinion, the observer would like to see.
Experiment(from Latin experimentum - test, experience) - one of the main methods of collecting primary information, characterized by the fact that the researcher systematically manipulates one or more variables (factors) and records the accompanying changes in the manifestation of the phenomenon being studied.
The ability to manipulate variables is one of the important advantages experimenter in front of the observer. The main advantage of the experimental method- is that you can specifically call some mental process, to trace the dependence of a mental phenomenon on changeable external conditions.
This advantage explains the widespread use of experiment in psychology. The bulk of empirical facts was obtained experimentally. But the experimental method is not applicable to every research problem. Yes, it’s difficult experimental study character and complex abilities. The disadvantages of the experiment turn out to be reverse side its advantages. It is very difficult to organize an experiment so that the subject does not know that he is a subject. If this fails, then the subject’s constraint, conscious or unconscious anxiety, fear of evaluation, etc. are more than likely. To ensure the secrecy of the process of a natural experiment, it cannot be carried out repeatedly and the possibilities of using the equipment are limited, which is also a negative side of this method.