A message on the topic of Russian vocabulary. Cheat sheet: Basic concepts of lexicology

The term "lexicology" is made up of two Greek elements: lexis (lexis) and logos (logos). Both meant “word” in ancient Greek. Thus, lexicology is a word about a word, or the science of words. The vocabulary of a language is the totality of all words and their equivalent phrases (phraseological units).

Sections of lexicology

1. Onomasiology - studies the vocabulary of a language, its nominative means, types of vocabulary units of a language, methods of nomination.

2. Semasiology - studies the meaning of vocabulary units of a language, types of lexical meanings, and the semantic structure of the lexeme.

3. Phraseology - studies phraseological units.

4. Onomastics is the science of proper names. Here we can distinguish the largest subsections: anthroponymy, which studies proper names, and toponymy, which studies geographical objects.

5. Etymology - studies the origin of individual words.

6. Lexicography - deals with issues of compiling and studying dictionaries.

7. The focus of the study of lexicology is the word.

Token

Having become familiar with the types of words presented in the language, one can introduce another concept presented in lexicology, namely, the concept of a lexical word, or lexeme. A lexeme is a significant word that points to objects and denotes concepts about them. A lexeme is capable of acting as a member of a sentence and forming sentences; it can be simple (a lexeme is a word) and compound (a lexeme is a compound name, for example: a railway, a holiday home). In this understanding, function words and forms of words are not included in the concept of “lexeme”.

How do the terms lexeme and word relate?

In some cases they denote the same fact of language. So a person is both a word and a lexeme; in, would. From are words, but not lexemes. The sentence “Man is a friend to man” contains three words, but two lexemes. Consequently, the term lexeme diverges from the term word. The latter names both the function word and the form of the word. Word forms that differ only in grammatical meaning are not considered separate lexemes (kot - kota - kotu - cat). They form a paradigm, that is, a system of word forms of one lexeme.

The lexical meaning of a word is the content of the word, reflecting in the mind and consolidating in it the idea of ​​an object, property, process, phenomenon, and so on. This is the correlation established by our thinking between a sound complex and an object or phenomenon of reality, which is designated by this complex of sounds.

The carrier of lexical meaning is the stem of the word. The meaning of a word reflects the general and at the same time essential characteristics of an object, learned as a result of people’s social practice. Lexical meanings can be concrete and abstract, general (common nouns) and singular (proper).

Word problems in language

Shcherba wrote in one of his last articles: “Really, what is a word? I think that it will be different in different languages. It follows from this that the concept of a word does not exist at all.”

This issue is covered differently by Smirnitsky, who in his article “On the Question of the Word” wrote that “the word acts not only as the basic unit of vocabulary, but also as the central nodal unit of language in general.” When presenting material about words, we will adhere to precisely this point of view.

The linguistic encyclopedic dictionary (M., 1990) gives the following definition of the concept of a word:

The word is the basic structural-semantic unit of language, serving to name objects and their properties, phenomena, relations of reality, possessing a set of semantic, phonetic and grammatical features specific to a given language.

The most important features of a word

A word, like any other unit of language, according to Smirnitsky, has two important features:

1) It has not only an external (sound) side, but also an externally expressed meaning (semantic or emotional content).

When considering the question of the two-sidedness of a word, we should dwell on the very nature of this connection between the sound of a word and its meaning.

The connection between the sound and meaning of a word is, in principle, conditional, arbitrary, or unmotivated. So, for example, there is no inherently obligatory connection between the meaning table and the sound Tisch. As is known, in different languages ​​the meaning table is associated with different sound complexes: in English. table, in Russian Table, in it. Tisch. The principle of convention applies to simple, indecomposable units; completely, actually to morphemes.

As for more complex formations, in them, in addition to the principle of convention (since complex formations include simple units), the principle of motivation comes first. Correlating with the concept of motivation is the term “internal form of a word,” which refers to the motivation of the lexical meaning of a word by its word-formation and semantic structure. The internal form of the word reveals some attribute of the object on the basis of which the name originated. For example, the redstart bird once amazed a person with its unusually bright, seemingly burning tail. This symptom that struck a person was the basis for the name of this bird. Of course, the feature that forms the basis of the name is not always so bright and impressive. It is usually much calmer: a candlestick is what is under the candle, and a thimble is what is put on the finger - a finger, a snowdrop, a flower that appears in the spring, when there is still snow on the fields.

2) The word appears not as a work created in the process of speech, but as something that already exists and is only reproduced in speech.

By the way, morphemes also satisfy the above requirements, and therefore can rightfully be considered units of language. It should also be noted that proverbs, sayings, aphorisms and generally various sayings, reproduced again and again as whole units, also act, according to Smirnitsky, as units of language, since they already exist in the language and are only reproduced in speech. But the sentence then is not, according to Smirnitsky, a unit of language.

It is necessary to dwell on the issue of the salience of a word in the flow of speech. In certain cases, certain phonetic moments serve to highlight a word, to delimit it from neighboring words. So, for example, the lack of emphasis on a full-valued unit that has a substantive meaning in Germanic languages ​​is usually an indicator that we are dealing with only part of the word, for example. English Railway, blackboard, German. Eisenbahn, Schwarzbrot, where the lack of emphasis on -way, -board, -bahn, -brot shows that these units in these cases do not represent separate words, but are only components of words. Such phonetic moments, capable of expressing the difference between a word and part of a word, should be considered only as some additional, auxiliary means of highlighting a word. Why? The fact is that with such a selection, the word is treated as if it were only a sound segment. Meanwhile, a word, as a unit of language, is a formation that has both a sound side and a semantic side. The main signs of the distinctiveness and completeness of a word should be sought based on the understanding of the word as the basic unit of the vocabulary of a language and, at the same time, a unit that is capable of grammatical change and grammatical combination into sentences, into coherent meaningful speech with other units of the same order.

The changeability of a word presupposes a certain form of it: since the same word changes, something basic, actually vocabulary, lexical, stands out in it, remaining the same with various changes in the word, and, on the other hand, something additional, variable, belonging together however, not to a given specific word, but to a known class or category of words, abstracted from specific words - grammatical, associated with the use of the word in various works of speech. Thus, the basic, lexical meaning of the word turns out to be supplemented, complicated by certain grammatical meanings, which are materially expressed in external, sound differences between individual varieties - the grammatical forms of the word: this gives the word a certain formality.

Words turn out to be grammatically, both morphologically and syntactically, designed, in a certain way adapted to their joint functioning in coherent, meaningful speech. This formalization of the word gives it a certain completeness, which makes it quite easy to isolate it from speech.

The internal integrity of the word (whole form) of the word is revealed in comparison with the structure of the phrase. In contrast to words as completely formed formations, phrases can be defined as separately formed formations. This can be illustrated with the following examples. If we compare the language education das Schwarzbrot and the language education das schwarze Brot, which includes the same root elements as the first education, then it is easy to see that they, while denoting the same object of objective reality and not significantly different in their meaning, are fundamentally different in its relation to the grammatical structure, in its design. This difference lies in the fact that in the first language formation - a word - both components are formalized once, while in the second language formation - a phrase - there is an independent grammatical design for each component. In other words, the formation of Schwarzbrot is completely formed, and the formation of das schwarze Brot is separately formed.

The integrity of the word itself expresses a certain semantic integrity: it emphasizes that a given object or phenomenon is thought of as one, special whole, even if the complexity of its structure is noted or its individual features are highlighted. So, speaking das Schwarzbrot, we pay main attention to the object denoted by this word, although we mean its individual aspects: a) bread, food product and b) the quality of this product in color. On the contrary, if we say das schwarze Brot, individual aspects of the designated phenomenon come to the fore, and through the perception of individual aspects of this object or phenomenon, the object or phenomenon itself as a whole is realized.

Semantic structure of a word- semantic structure of the basic unit of vocabulary (see Word). S. s. With. manifests itself in its polysemy (see) as the ability, with the help of internally related meanings, to name (denote) various objects (phenomena, properties, qualities, relationships, actions and states). The semantic structure of an unambiguous word is reduced to its seme composition (see Seme) .

The simplest unit (element) of the semantic structure of a polysemantic word is its lexical-semantic variant (LSV), i.e. with a lexical meaning (see), associated with other lexical meanings by certain relationships, the main of which are hierarchical: the expression of subordination of dependent lexical meaning from the south to the main thing. In S. s. With. lexical-semantic variants are related to each other due to the commonality of the internal form (see Internal form of a word), their mutual motivation, and deducibility from each other.

Therefore, in dictionaries, each preceding LSV determines the interpretation of the subsequent one, for example. circle ^ “part of the pchoskosgn, limited by the circle, as well as the circle itself” ~^- circle ± “object in the shape of a circle” (rescue, rubber circle), [circle-) “closed area, within the outlined boundaries of the cut there is fulfillment and differentiation something" (range of responsibilities, interests, issues)], [circle "a group of people united by common interests, sanilamn" (circle of acquaintances, friends; in one's circle)], [circle "a social group of people primarily engaged in intellectual, creative work "(wide circles of the public, literary, journalistic circles; about diplomatic circles: in the circle of scientists, specialists)], etc. Here, hierarchically, the main LSV is the circle in the content of which the internal form is most manifested; all other LSVs of the word circle are metaphorically connected with this LSV (by similarity of form). At<ггом представление о круге присутствует в толковании значений всех ЛСВ слова и внутренне связывает их в единое целое. Основанием для выделения главного и частных значений (или иначе: главного и частных ЛСВ) служит различный характер взаимодействия слова в таких значениях с контекстом, т. е. фрагментом текста, необходимым и достаточным для определения того или иного значения слова. Главное значение в наименьшей степени обусловлено контекстом. Слово в главном (первом в словарях) значении является семантически наиболее простым по своему содержанию (ср. вода\ "прозрачная бесцветная жидкость") и обладает в силу этого самой широкой н свободной сочетаемостью с другими лексическими единицами. Все прочие значения слова (его ЛСВ) выступают как частные. В частных значениях по сравнению с главным слово в значительно большей степени обусловлено контекстом, присоединяет к себе его элементы и является в силу этого семантически более сложным (напр., вода2 "минеральный, газированный, фруктовый напиток", т. е. вода+содержащая минеральные соли; насыщенная газом; приготовленная из фруктов), при атом характеризуется ограниченной, избирательной сочетаемостью: минеральная, сельтерская, газированная, фруктовая вода.

The main meaning is called the primary semantic function of the word, and the particular meanings are its secondary semantic functions.

Along with the usual dictionary meanings (main, particular) in S. p. With. the general meaning is distinguished as its invariant (from the Latin invarians - unchanging), opposed to variant meanings: this is a coinciding part of the content of all meanings (LSV) of a word, something constant, unchangeable in them. It stands out like a common factor in algebra: ab + ac + ad = = a(b + c + d), is an extremely generalized and semantically simple content and represents a linguistic abstraction useful for the semantic analysis of linguistic units. The relationship of the meanings of a word to its general meaning [i.e. e. to the general content of all its variants] allows us to establish their semantic hierarchy according to the degree of proximity to it: the central, dominant meanings turn out to be semantically the simplest, the peripheral ones - more complex and therefore further removed from the general (invariant) meaning of the word than the first. In S. s. With. certain values ​​(LSV) may die out. For example, the meaning of “beautiful” in the common Slavic adjective red (cf. Red Square) was historically original, the main one in the word formed from the same stem as the word beauty. In the meaning of color, the word red began to be used later, in the era of the separate existence of the Eastern Slavs. languages. This meaning has become the main one in S. s. s, leading to its partial restructuring. At the same time, S. s. With. is constantly enriched with new meanings, since a word is a unit of an “open” lexical system, for example. the meaning of “a person who swims in open water in winter” in the word walrus (cf. walrus section), “effective attacking player in football, hockey” in the word scorer (cf. best scorer of the season), etc.

All words are divided into word-formation motivated (derivatives) and unmotivated (non-derivatives)). Word-formatively motivated are words whose meaning and sound are determined in the modern language by other words of the same root (motivating, or producing). Motivated words are recognized as being formed from motivating words: table - table ‘small table’, white - belet ‘become white, whiter’. The meaning and sound of word-formative unmotivated words (table, white) are not determined in the modern language by other cognate words; they are not recognized as formed from other words.

A motivated word is connected with another word with the same root or with several words with the same root through relations of word-formation motivation. Motivation is a relationship between two words of the same root in which the meaning of one of them is either determined through the meaning of the other (house - house 'small house', strength - strong man 'man of great physical strength'), or is identical to the meaning of the other in all its components, except for the grammatical meaning of a part of speech (walk - walking, daring - daring, bold - boldly), or completely identical to the meaning of another with a difference in the stylistic coloring of these words (knee - razg. kolenka).

Words with the same root, devoid of the named properties (house and house), are not in a relationship of motivation with each other.

One of the two cognate words connected by the relations of word-formation motivation is motivating, and the other is motivated. The motivation of a word is determined by four rules that apply in the following cases:

The compared words with the same root have different lexical meanings, and in their stems, in addition to the root, a different number of sound segments are isolated (the stem of one of them may be equal to the root). In this case, the motivated word is the word whose base is longer by any sound segment, which is recognized as a word-forming affixal morph (see § 16): forest - forest-ok, stand - stand.

The compared words of the same root have different lexical meanings, and their stems contain the same number of sound segments. In this case, motivated is a word that is semantically more complex, the meaning of which is determined through another word compared with it: chemistry - chemist ‘chemistry specialist’, artist - artist ‘woman artist’.

The meanings of the compared cognate words are identical in all their components, except for the grammatical meaning of the part of speech. In this case: a) in pairs “verb - noun denoting the same action” (draw - drawing, exit - exit, creak - creak) and “adjective - noun denoting the same attribute” (brave - courage, graceful - grace , blue - blue), regardless of the length of the stems of the words being compared, the noun is motivated; b) in the “adjective - adverb” pair, the motivated word is the word whose stem is longer by any segment - the word-forming affixal morph (see paragraph 1): cf. today - today-sh-y and bold-y - bold-o, where -o is part of the stem (suffix).

Note. The exception to the rule formulated in paragraph 3a is: 1) pairs of words consisting of a noun that does not have a suffix with the meaning of action, and a verb with the suffix -nicha-, -stvova-, or -ova-/-irova-/- izirova-/-izova-: in such pairs, the verb is motivated, since in modern language, with the help of these suffixes, verbs are easily formed from nouns with the meaning of action, and nouns with the meaning of action are not formed from such verbs without the help of a suffix: focus - to play tricks, blasphemy - blaspheme, salute - salute, repair - repair, terror - terrorize; 2) pairs consisting of a noun ending in -stv(o) and an adjective in which -stv- is followed by the suffix: courage - courageous, ignorance - ignorant.

One of the words in a motivational relationship is stylistically neutral, while the other has some stylistic connotation. In this case, regardless of the length of the stems of the compared words, the stylistically colored word is motivated: ship - ship (colloquial), individual - individual (colloquial).

A motivated word differs from a motivating word by certain word-formation means. Affixal morphs (most often), as well as cutting off part of the stem, a fixed order of components and a single emphasis on one of the components in additions and splices (for more details, see § 31) act as word-forming means for motivation.

Related information.

Lexicology

Lexicology(from ancient Greek. λέξις - word, expression, λόγος - judgment) - a section of linguistics that studies the vocabulary of a language, or vocabulary. Lexicology is divided into general and specific. Private lexicology studies the lexical composition of a particular language. Lexicology considers:

• word and its meaning
• system of word relationships
• history of the formation of modern vocabulary
• functional and stylistic differences between words in different areas of speech

The object of study is the word. It is also studied in morphology and word formation. However, if in them words turn out to be a means for studying the grammatical structure and word-formation models and rules of the language, then in lexicology words are studied for the knowledge of the words themselves, as well as the vocabulary of the language (vocabulary). Since vocabulary is not just a sum of words, but a certain system of mutually relative and interconnected facts, lexicology appears as a science not about individual words, but about the lexical system of the language as a whole.

Subject of lexicology:

• 1) The word from the point of view of the theory of the word. For example, how the meaning of a word relates to the concept. What is the role of the word in the text and in the language.
• 2) The structure of the vocabulary of the language. That is: how lexical units are related (in what relationships they are).
• 3) Functioning of lexical units. Combination of words, frequency of use, etc.
• 4) Ways to replenish the vocabulary of a language. How new words are created and how new meanings are formed for words.
• 5) Correlations between vocabulary and extra-linguistic reality. For example, how vocabulary can relate to culture.

Sections of lexicology

Sections of lexicology:

• 1) Onomasiology (ancient Greek. ὄνομα name, ancient Greek λόγος judgment) - explores the process of naming objects.
• 2) Semasiology (ancient Greek. σημασία sign, meaning, ancient Greek. λόγος judgment) - explores the meaning of words and phrases. Answers the question of how extra-linguistic reality is reflected in words.
• 3) Phraseology (ancient Greek. φράσις way of expression, ancient Greek. λόγος judgment) - studies the phraseological composition of the language, the relationship of words among themselves and with other units of language.
• 4) Onomastics (ancient Greek. ὀνομαστική letters - the art of giving names) - studies already existing proper names in the broad sense of the word: a) toponymy - studies geographical names; b) anthroponymy - studies the names and surnames of people.
• 5) Etymology (ancient Greek. ἔτυμον original meaning [of a word]) - studies the origin of words and vocabulary as a whole.
• 6) Lexicography - deals with the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries.
• 7) Stylistics - studies the connotative meaning of words and expressions.

Literature

Wikimedia Foundation. 2010.

Synonyms:

See what “Lexicology” is in other dictionaries:

Lexicology… Spelling dictionary-reference book

Section of “linguistics” (see), dedicated to the study of vocabulary. Literary encyclopedia. At 11 vol.; M.: Publishing House of the Communist Academy, Soviet Encyclopedia, Fiction. Edited by V. M. Fritsche, A. V. Lunacharsky. 1929 1939 … Literary encyclopedia

- (Greek, from lexikon dictionary, and lego I say). The science that studies the composition and formation of language forms. Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. Chudinov A.N., 1910. LEXICOLOGY Greek, from lexikon, dictionary, and lego,... ... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

lexicology- and, f. lexicologie f.gr. lexis word+ logos science. A branch of linguistics that studies vocabulary. BAS 1. The term lexicology was first introduced by the encyclopedia of D. Diderot and J. D. Alembert in 1765. LES 261. Clarification of the essence of the meaning of a word, analysis... ... Historical Dictionary of Gallicisms of the Russian Language

- (from the Greek lexikos relating to the word and...logy), a section of linguistics that studies the vocabulary, vocabulary of a language... Modern encyclopedia

- (from the Greek lexikos relating to the word and...logy) a section of linguistics that studies the vocabulary of a language... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

LEXICOLOGY, lexicology, many others. no, female (from the Greek lekxikos vocabulary and logos teaching) (philol.). A department of linguistics that studies vocabulary and the vocabulary of the language. Works on lexicology. Do lexicology. Ushakov's explanatory dictionary. D.N. Ushakov... Ushakov's Explanatory Dictionary

LEXICOLOGY, and, female. The branch of linguistics is the science of the vocabulary of a language. | adj. lexical, oh, oh. Ozhegov's explanatory dictionary. S.I. Ozhegov, N.Yu. Shvedova. 1949 1992 … Ozhegov's Explanatory Dictionary

Noun, number of synonyms: 8 lexicography (5) linguistics (73) semantics (8) ... Synonym dictionary

Lexicology- LEXICOLOGY (Greek) the study of vocabulary or vocabulary Ph.D. language... Dictionary of literary terms

LEXICOLOGY- (from the Greek lexicon – dictionary + ...logy). A branch of linguistics that studies the vocabulary and vocabulary of a language. L. studies the following main problems: the word as the basic unit of language; types of lexical units; ways to replenish and develop vocabulary... ... New dictionary of methodological terms and concepts (theory and practice of language teaching)

Books

• Lexicology of the modern Russian language. Textbook, N. M. Shansky. `Lexicology of the modern Russian language`N. M. Shansky is one of the first monographic studies of the vocabulary of the Russian language, which largely determined the development of this industry...

The course of modern Russian literary language includes a number of sections.

Vocabulary and phraseology study the vocabulary and phraseological (stable phrases) composition of the Russian language

Phonetics describes the sound composition of the modern Russian language and the main sound processes occurring in the language.

Graphic arts introduces the composition of the Russian alphabet, the relationship between sounds and letters.

Spelling contains rules governing the spelling of words.

Orthoepy studies the norms of modern literary origins.

Word formation studies the morphological composition of words and the main types of formation of new words.

Morphology is the doctrine of the basic lexical and grammatical categories of words (parts of speech).

Syntax studies the structure of phrases and sentences.

Punctuation contains rules for placing punctuation marks.

VOCABULARY

Vocabulary (from ancient - Greek τὸ λεξικός - “relating to the word”, from ἡ λέξις - “word”, “figure of speech”) - a set of words of a particular language, part of a language or words that a particular person or group knows of people. Vocabulary is the central part of language, naming, forming and transmitting knowledge about objects of reality. For example, the vocabulary of the modern Russian language consists of more than half a million words.

All vocabulary is divided into two large groups: active and passive.

Passive vocabulary - this is vocabulary that we use only in certain cases

Active vocabulary - this is the vocabulary that we use every day in our speech.

Passive vocabulary is divided into 6 sections:

Archaisms- new names of old words.

Neologisms- new words.

Homonyms- one word with several meanings.

Antonyms- opposite in meaning.

Synonyms- words that sound different but have the same meaning.

Dialectisms- narrower terms traditional for territorial or social division.

Historicisms- outdated words.

Archaism is an outdated word, which in modern speech has been replaced by a synonym.

Archaism is a lexical unit that has fallen out of use, although the corresponding object (phenomenon) remains in real life and receives other names (outdated words, supplanted or replaced by modern synonyms).

The reason for the appearance of archaisms is in the development of the language, in the updating of its vocabulary: some words are replaced by other words that have fallen out of active use.

Examples: Eye - eye, hand - palm, daughter - daughter, gold - gold

Neologism - the meaning of a word or phrase that recently appeared in the language (newly formed, previously absent). The freshness and unusualness of such a word or phrase is clearly felt by native speakers of the given language.

Homonyms- units of language that are different in meaning, but identical in spelling (words, morphemes, etc.).

Examples:

Scythe- on the girl’s head; scythe - a tool for mowing.

Butterfly- insect; the bow tie.

Onion- plant; bow weapon.

Antonyms- these are words of the same part of speech, different in sound and spelling, having directly opposite lexical meanings: truth - lie, good - evil, dark - light.

Antonyms are possible for words whose meanings contain opposite qualitative shades, but the meanings are always based on a common feature (weight, height, feeling, time of day, etc.). Also, only words belonging to the same grammatical or stylistic category can be contrasted. Consequently, words belonging to different parts of speech or lexical levels cannot become linguistic antonyms.

There are no antonyms proper names, pronouns, numerals.

Synonyms- words of the same part of speech, different in sound and spelling, but having the same or very similar lexical meaning.

They serve to increase the expressiveness of speech and help avoid monotony.

Examples: berry - fruit, brave - brave, cavalry - cavalry, big - great.

Dialectism- narrower terms of traditional stylistics: “vulgarism”, “provincialism” and others, and denoting a word or expression of any dialect, for territorial or social, introduced into the literary language.

Dialectisms are words or figures of speech used by people of a particular locality.

Examples: Farm, cleaning area, hoe

Historicisms- words or stable phrases that are the names of objects that once existed, but disappeared, phenomena of human life. Historicisms belong to the passive dictionary and do not have synonyms in the modern language.

The age of historicism can be calculated in both centuries and decades.

Examples: smerd, boyar, carriage

Take care and love the word. After all, our native Russian language begins with it!

Lexicology is a branch of the science of language that studies vocabulary in its current state and historical development.

The object of study in lexicology is primarily words. Words, as is known, are also studied in morphology and word formation. But if in morphology and word formation words turn out to be a means for studying grammatical structure and word-formation models and rules, then in lexicology words are studied from the point of view of 1) their semantic meaning, 2) place in the general system of vocabulary, 3) origin, 4) usage, 5 ) scope of application in the process of communication and 6) their expressive and stylistic nature.

The relationships between words can be very unique.

The word as the main significant unit of the Russian language.

Like other languages, Russian as a means of communication is a language of words. “From words that act separately or as components of phraseological units, sentences are formed using grammatical rules and laws, and then the text as a structural and communicative whole.” 1

Words in language designate specific objects and abstract concepts, express human emotions, call “general, abstract categories of existential relations,” 2 etc. Thus, the word acts as the main significant unit of language.

Despite the undoubted reality of the word as a separate linguistic phenomenon, despite the bright features inherent in it, it is difficult to define. This is explained primarily by the variety of words from structural, grammatical and semantic points of view (cf.: table, goodwill, write, black; sofa bed, five hundred; at, since, only, probably; scat! Oh!; say there, it's getting light and so on.).

Shansky believes that it is possible to give a correct definition of a word only if it organically reflects absolutely all the main differential features of the word, sufficient to distinguish it from other linguistic units.

One of the main properties of words existing in a language is

their reproducibility. Reproducibility - words are created in the process of communication, and are extracted from memory or any speech context in the form of a single structural-semantic whole.

Shansky identified several reasons why reproducibility cannot be considered sufficient to distinguish words from other linguistic units: “1) reproducibility is also characteristic of morphemes and phraseological units and, moreover, even for sentences, as long as they coincide in their composition with a word or phraseological in turn, 2) in the process of speech, words may arise that are not reproducible, but created morphemic combinations” 3

A word is characterized by a phonetic form (and also, naturally, a graphic form if the language has, in addition to an oral form, a written form).

The phonetic design characteristic of a word is expressed

is that any lexical unit always acts as a “sound structural unity corresponding to the phonological norms of a given language system” 4

No less important is another property of a word - its semantic valence 5. There is not a single word in the language that has no meaning. Every word has not only a certain sound, but also a particular meaning. This is precisely what distinguishes a word from a phoneme.

A distinctive feature of a word is its lexico-grammatical relationship. Morphemes, existing as a further indivisible meaningful whole in a word, do not have a lexico-grammatical relationship. They act as significant parts, deprived not only of any morphological design, but also of any attachment to a specific lexical-grammatical category. “As parts of a word, morphemes are completely incapable of syntactic use and, when used in a sentence, they immediately turn into words, acquiring bright and undoubted morphological features of a noun. Function words are closest to morphemes; their meanings are very “formal”; they have no grammatical structure. However, function words (including prepositions) appear before us as

undoubted words." 6

Indirectly and reflectedly (but very effectively) in distinguishing function words (especially prepositions) from morphemes, the property of word impenetrability helps, which is one of the most striking features of a word, in contrast to prepositional-case combinations, free combinations of words and individual categories of phraseological units, semantically equivalent to a word. After all, if the word as a morphemic whole is impenetrable, then the significant units between which free verbal “insertions” are possible are words and only words, but in no case morphemes. And vice versa, significant units, between which free verbal insertions are impossible, are not separate words, representing either parts of a word, i.e., morphemes, or parts of a phraseological phrase. The property of impenetrability is characteristic of absolutely all words: it is impossible to insert words (and especially combinations of words) inside words in the Russian language 7 .

First of all, a clear line should be drawn between such concepts as 1) words and word forms and 2) word forms and word variants.

By forms of a word we should understand those varieties of it that differ from each other only in grammatical features and are related as dependent, secondary to the same one, which acts as the main, initial one.

The main, initial forms are the nominative case forms in names, the infinitive in the verb, etc.

Word variants can be considered formations that have an identical morphemic composition and the differences between which are so insignificant that they do not violate the unity of the lexical unit as a whole. They differ from word forms in that they are opposed and related to one another as single-row ones (cf.: galosh - galosh, far - far, key - key, audience (room) and audience (listeners), etc.).

Question 1

Lexicology as a science about the vocabulary of the modern Russian language. Sections of lexicology

Lexicology from Greek. leksis, leksicos word, expression; logos teaching. This science examines the vocabulary (lexical) composition of a language in different aspects. Lexicology examines the vocabulary of a language (lexicon) from the point of view of what a word is, how and what it expresses, and how it changes. Phraseology is adjacent to lexicology, which is often included in lexicology as a special section.

Lexicology is divided into general, particular, historical and comparative. The first, called general lexicology in English, is a section of general linguistics that studies the vocabulary of any language, what relates to lexical universals. General lexicology deals with the general laws of the structure of the lexical system, issues of the functioning and development of the vocabulary of the world's languages.

Private lexicology studies the vocabulary of a particular language. Special lexicology deals with the study of issues related to the vocabulary of one language, in our case English. Thus, general lexicology can consider, for example, the principles of synonymous or antonymic relations in a language, while specific lexicology will deal with the peculiarities of English synonyms or antonyms.

Both general and specific problems of vocabulary can be analyzed in various aspects. First of all, any phenomenon can be approached from a synchronic or diachronic point of view. The synchronic approach assumes that the characteristics of a word are considered within a certain period or one historical stage of their development. This study of vocabulary is also called descriptive lexicology. Diachronic, or historical, lexicology (historical lexicology) studies the historical development of the meanings and structure of words.

Comparative or contrastive lexicology deals with the comparison of lexical phenomena of one language with facts of another or other languages. The purpose of such studies is to trace the ways of intersection or divergence of lexical phenomena characteristic of the languages ​​selected for comparison.

Historical lexicology traces changes in the meanings (semantics) of a single word or an entire group of words, and also examines changes in the names of objects of reality (see below about etymology). Comparative lexicology reveals similarities and differences in the division of objective reality by lexical means of different languages. Both individual words and groups of words can be matched.

Main tasks lexicology are:

*)definition of a word as a meaningful unit vocabulary;

*)characteristics of the lexical-semantic system, that is, identification of the internal organization of linguistic units and analysis of their connections (semantic structure of the word, specificity of distinctive semantic features, patterns of its relations with other words, etc.).

The subject of lexicology, as follows from the very name of this science, is the word.

Sections of lexicology:

Onomasiology - studies the vocabulary of a language, its nominative means, types of vocabulary units of a language, methods of nomination.

Semasiology - studies the meaning of vocabulary units of a language, types of lexical meanings, and the semantic structure of the lexeme.

Phraseology - studies phraseological units.

Onomastics is the science of proper names. Here we can distinguish the largest subsections: anthroponymy, which studies proper names, and toponymy, which studies geographical objects.

Etymology - studies the origin of individual words.

Lexicography deals with the issues of compiling and studying dictionaries. It is also often called applied lexicology.

The concept of the term “modern Russian literary language”.

Traditionally, the Russian language has been modern since the time of A.S. Pushkin. It is necessary to distinguish between the concepts of the Russian national language and the literary Russian language. The national language is the language of the Russian people; it covers all spheres of people’s speech activity. In contrast, literary language is a narrower concept. Literary language is the highest form of existence of language, an exemplary language. This is a strictly standardized form of the popular national language. Literary language is understood as a language processed by wordsmiths, scientists, and public figures.

Question 2

Wordbasic unit of language. Signs of a word. Definition of the word. Types of words. Functions of the word

The word is the basic structural-semantic unit of language, which serves to name objects and their properties, phenomena, relations of reality, and has a set of semantic, phonetic and grammatical features specific to each language. The characteristic features of a word are integrity, distinctiveness and free reproducibility in speech.

Given the complexity of the multifaceted structure words, modern researchers, when characterizing it, use multidimensional analysis and point to the sum of a variety of linguistic features:

• phonetic (or phonemic) design and the presence of one main stress;
• lexical-semantic significance words, its separation and impermeability (impossibility of additional inserts inside words without changing its value);
• idiomaticity (otherwise unpredictability, unmotivated naming or incomplete motivation);
• attribution to one or another part of speech.

In modern lexicology of the Russian language, the short definition proposed by D. N. Shmelev seems quite motivated: word This is a unit of naming, characterized by completeness (phonetic and grammatical) and idiomaticity.

There are several types of words. According to the method of nomination, four types of words are distinguished: independent, auxiliary, pronominal, interjections.

Words are distinguished phonetically: single-stressed, unstressed, multi-stressed, complex.

Words are distinguished according to morphological characteristics: changeable, unchangeable, simple, derivative, complex.

By motivation: unmotivated and motivated.

According to semantic and grammatical criteria, words are grouped into parts of speech.

From the point of view of structural integrity, a distinction is made between integral and divisible words.

Semantically, words differ between single-valued and polysemous, absolute and relative, requiring an object and transitive verbs. In a sentence, a word enters into subtle semantic relationships with other words and elements of the sentence (intonation, word order, syntactic functions).

FUNCTIONS OF THE WORD

communicative function

nominative function

aesthetic function

language function

communication function

message function

impact function

IMPACT FUNCTION. Its implementation is a voluntary function, i.e. expression of the will of the speaker; the function is expressive, i.e. messages to expressiveness; the function is emotive, i.e. expression of feelings, emotions.

FUNCTION IS COMMUNICATIVE. The purpose of the word is to serve as a means of communication and message;

NOMINATIVE FUNCTION. The purpose of a word is to serve as the name of an object;

COMMUNICATION FUNCTION. The main function of language, one of the aspects of the communicative function, consists in the mutual exchange of statements by members of the linguistic community.

MESSAGE FUNCTION. The other side of the communicative function, which consists in conveying some logical content;

FUNCTION AESTHETIC. The purpose of the word is to serve as a means of artistic expression;

LANGUAGE FUNCTION. Using the potential properties of language means in speech for various purposes.

Question 3

Lexical meaning of the word. Structure of lexical meaning

Lexical meaning the correlation of the sound shell of a word with the corresponding objects or phenomena of objective reality. Lexical meaning does not include the entire set of features inherent in any object, phenomenon, action, etc., but only the most significant ones that help to distinguish one object from another. Lexical meaning reveals the signs by which common properties are determined for a number of objects, actions, phenomena, and also establishes the differences that distinguish a given object, action, phenomenon. For example, the lexical meaning of the word giraffe is defined as follows: “an African artiodactyl ruminant with a very long neck and long legs,” that is, the characteristics that distinguish the giraffe from other animals are listed.

Question 4

Types of lexical meanings

A comparison of various words and their meanings allows us to highlight several types of lexical meanings words in Russian.

By nomination method direct and figurative meanings of words are distinguished.

*)Direct(or basic, main) meaning of a word is a meaning that directly correlates with the phenomena of objective reality. For example, words table, black, boil have the following basic meanings respectively:

1. “A piece of furniture in the form of a wide horizontal board on high supports or legs.”

2. "The color of soot, coal."

3. “Burgle, bubble, evaporate from strong heat” (about liquids).

These values ​​are stable, although