What does morphology mean? Morphology as a science
§ 180. The term “morphology” is of Greek origin (cf. Greek. torphe –"form" and logos –"word, doctrine, concept"). It was borrowed by linguists in the 19th century. from biological terminology, where it was used to designate the branch of biological science that studies the species, or “forms,” of animals. This term, like many others, is ambiguous. It denotes a certain part of the language system, i.e. a known part of the grammar of a language, its grammatical structure, and a section of linguistics in which this part of the grammatical structure of a language is studied.
Morphology in the first of these meanings, or morphology of language, the morphological structure of language, is often defined as a system of morphological grammatical units, which include morphological grammatical forms, or grammatical forms of words, morphological grammatical categories, morphological grammemes, words as expressors of morphological meanings, etc. .
Let’s compare the following definitions: “Morphology combines systems of word forms belonging to a language (paradigms), as well as grammatical (morphological) categories and lexico-grammatical categories of words, i.e. such lexical categories that have common and fairly stable grammatical characteristics ". " Morphology of language“this is a set and system of grammatical categories of words and verbal forms inherent in a language,” i.e., morphological grammatical categories, which will be discussed later.
Morphology in the second meaning is understood, accordingly, as a section of linguistics (grammar) that studies morphological grammatical units.
Let’s compare, for example: “MORPHOLOGY... is a section of grammar that studies words from the perspective of their internal structure (morphemic composition), primarily in terms of the formation of word forms and their systems, and those grammatical categories that are revealed in these forms.. ".
In accordance with the common explanation of grammar as a set (system) of rules for the formation (construction) of grammatical units of a language, the morphology of a language, its morphological structure is sometimes defined as a set (system) of methods and means of forming morphological grammatical units.
Let’s compare the statements: “Morphology is not only a science, but also a set of methods and means of constructing and changing words that objectively exist in a language...”. Morphology as a branch of linguistics (grammar) is explained in a similar way: " Morphology... called the doctrine of ways and means of constructing and changing words."
When defining morphology as the study of the morphological units of language, the object of this section of linguistics (grammar) is most often the word in its various morphological aspects.
In this regard, morphology is usually defined as “the grammatical study of words,” “the study of the grammatical structure of words, the forms of words, the formation of words and word forms,” as a section of grammar that studies “the structure of words, rules and laws of word change.”
Some linguists, when defining morphology as a branch of linguistics, give a special place in this section of linguistic science to the study of parts of speech “with their grammatical categories”, lexico-grammatical categories of words of different parts of speech; the subject of morphology is considered “grammatical classes and categories of words - grammatical categories belonging to them and those systems of forms (paradigms) in which these categories exist and are identified." It is argued that “the main content of morphology is the study of parts of speech, their formation, types, changes”, that the morphology of a language as an object of morphological science is “first of all its parts of speech”, “the totality and system of parts of speech”.
Many modern scientists also include the study of word formation in the morphology section; often “from morphology they are isolated as independent sections word formation (derivatology) and the study of parts of speech".
Sometimes morphology is defined as “a section of grammar that studies the morphemic composition of a language, types of morphemes, the nature of their interaction and functioning as part of units of higher levels.”
The term "morphology", like the term "grammar", is sometimes used in relation to a certain part of the grammatical (morphological) system of a language, its individual elements. Let’s compare expressions such as: “noun morphology”, “conjugation morphology” and others like that.
Various aspects of studying the morphological system of a language are possible. Accordingly, morphology differs between general (theoretical) and particular, descriptive and historical, formal and functional, etc. (see the definition of similar phenomena given when explaining the concept of grammar).
Morphology is the grammatical study of words.
The word is basic an object morphology.
Subject morphology are the grammatical properties of words, their grammatical meanings and the specifics of their grammatical categories. Morphology establishes the composition of the grammatical forms of various types of words, reveals the rules for changing words, and distributes words according to types of conjugation and declension.
Morphology includes the study of parts of speech. It examines the semantic and formal features of words of various categories, develops criteria and rules for classifying words by parts of speech, determines the range of words for each part of speech, establishes a system of parts of speech, studies the lexical and grammatical features of words of each part of speech, and identifies patterns of interaction between parts of speech.
Grammatical meanings of words
A word is a complex unity of lexical and grammatical meanings.
The lexical meaning of a word is an individual semantic feature that distinguishes it from other words.
Grammatical meanings are characteristic of a number of words. Grammatical meaning is an abstract meaning abstracted from the lexical content of a word and inherent in a whole class of words.
Grammatical meanings are not unique. One grammatical meaning necessarily presupposes the presence of another (or others), homogeneous and correlative with it.
Grammatical meanings are not isolated from lexical ones. They seem to be layered on top of lexical (real, material) ones and rely on them. Therefore they are often called accompanying . “The grammatical meaning of a word is the meaning it has in relation to other words. ...the grammatical meaning connects it primarily with other words” (A.A. Shakhmatov). Grammatical meanings reflect either certain features of phenomena in the external world, or the speaker’s attitude to the thought being expressed, or intralingual connections and relationships between words.
Ways and means of expressing grammatical meanings
According to its grammatical structure, the Russian language is an inflectional language with elements of analyticism. Therefore, most grammatical meanings are expressed in it synthetic way, i.e. using means (grammatical indicators), located in the word itself. Such means include endings, formative suffixes, prefixes, alternation of sounds, stress.
1. Endings . The endings are used to express:
· the meaning of gender, number and case of nouns, adjectives, participles and pronouns;
· the meaning of the case of numerals;
· meaning of person, number and gender of verbs.
One ending can express one grammatical meaning, two grammatical meanings, or three grammatical meanings.
2. Formative suffixes and prefixes .
The following are formed by suffixation:
· past tense form of the verb;
· forms of verb types;
· pledge forms;
· comparative and superlative forms of adjectives.
Nouns use suffixes to form singular forms ( hare-onok – bunny-at -A) and plural ( husband - husband-j -A).
By prefixation the following are formed:
· superlative forms of adjectives;
perfect forms of verbs.
3. Accent as a grammatical device it usually appears together with affixes. Stress rarely expresses grammatical meanings on its own. With the help of stress they distinguish, for example:
· unit forms Part gen. n. and many others h. them. n. nouns;
· forms of verb types.
4. Alternation of sounds , like stress, is usually an additional means of distinguishing grammatical meanings. It most often accompanies affixation.
In the morphology of the Russian language, cases of expressing grammatical meanings occupy a significant place analytical way, that is, with the help of means outside the word itself. Such means include prepositions and auxiliary words.
The analytical method includes all cases of expressing grammatical meanings using syntactic means, that is, by means of context and surrounding words.
Some words express separate grammatical meanings suppletive way, that is, using forms that have different roots.
5. Prepositions widely used to express case meanings of nouns, numerals and pronouns. In this case, they usually appear together with endings (materially expressed and zero) or without them.
6. Control expresses the case meanings of unchangeable nouns.
7. Intonation . The main area of application of intonation for expressing grammatical meanings is syntax.
8. Auxiliary words , which do not have a lexical meaning, serve the grammatical needs of full-valued words. With the help of auxiliary words, analytical forms of the word are formed. Such grammatical forms consist of two components: one - the main one - is the carrier of the lexical meaning, and the other - the auxiliary - serves to express the grammatical meaning.
Morphology and syntax are two components grammar.
The term "grammar" has several meanings:
1) the grammatical structure of the language is indicated, i.e. objective laws of the structure and functioning of words and sentences;
2) a special branch of linguistics that studies the grammatical structure of a language;
3) grammars are books containing a systematic description of a language.
In vocabulary, attention is paid primarily to the lexical meaning of a word, while in grammar, those properties and patterns of words and their associations and combinations that belong not to individual words, but to entire groups are considered.
For grammar, it is important how a word is grammatically formed, what grammatical meanings it contains and how they are expressed, how the word is combined with other words, and what role it plays in a sentence.
In this regard, the grammar is divided into two sections: morphology and syntax. Each section has its own tasks and subject of study.
Morphology(Greek morph- form, logos- doctrine) is a section of grammar that studies the grammatical properties of words. The grammatical properties of words are grammatical meanings, means of expressing grammatical meanings, grammatical categories.
Syntax(Greek syntaxis) studies combinations of words, the types of these combinations, forms of connection between words in a phrase and a sentence, the structure of sentences, structural types of sentences.
The grammatical meaning of the word
The grammatical meaning accompanies the lexical meaning of the word; The differences between these two types of values are:
1) Grammatical meanings are very abstract, therefore they characterize a large class of words. For example, the meaning of the verb form is always present in the semantic structure of the Russian verb.
Lexical meaning more specific than grammatical, so it characterizes only a specific word.
2) The lexical meaning is expressed by the stem of the word, the grammatical meaning is expressed by special formal indicators(this is why grammatical meanings are often called formal meanings).
So, grammatical meaning- this is an abstract (abstract) linguistic meaning expressed by formal grammatical means.
Formal grammar
Grammatical meanings are expressed using various means (grammatical indicators):
1) endings;
2) formative suffixes and prefixes;
3) accents;
4) alternation of sounds;
5) prepositions;
6) intonation;
7) auxiliary words.
The ending is used to express:
a) the meaning of gender, number and case of nouns, adjectives, participles, pronouns:
blue- oh sky- O, blue-- Wow sky- A etc.
b) the meaning of the case of numerals:
dv- A, dv- wow, dv- mind, dv- skillfully ,
I.p. R.p. D.p. etc.
five, five, five;
I.p. R.p. etc.
c) the meaning of person, number and gender of the verb:
sitting, sitting, sitting, sitting, sitting, sitting.
1 l., unit 2 l., units 3.l., plural m.r., units l.r., units plural
Suffixal by forming:
a) past tense form of the verb:
thought, saw;
b). species forms:
s.v. ns. s.v. n.s.
find out - find out, write down - record;
c) forms of collateral:
wash - wash;
valid average return deposit. pledge
d) comparative and superlative forms of adjectives:
white - white-ee, rare - rare-aysh-y.
By prefixation the following are formed:
a) superlative forms of adjectives:
the best is the best, the highest is the highest;
b) perfect forms of verbs:
draw - draw, build - build.
Accent as a grammatical means it usually acts together with suffixal means: create - create, prove - prove. On its own (without other means), stress rarely expresses grammatical meaning.
With the help of stress they distinguish, for example:
a) forms singular, r.p. and plural, i.p. nouns:
business(no) and affairs - á(are going well)
unit, r.p. plural, im.p
windows(no) and windows(facing the street)
b) species forms:
pour - pour
cut - cut
Alternation of sounds is also only an additional means of distinguishing grammatical meanings. It accompanies affixation. For example,
illuminate - illuminate(t//sch)
cool - cool down(d//railway)
collect - collect(And//#)
Prepositions widely used to express the case meanings of nouns, numerals, and pronouns.
At the same time, they appear together with the endings:
at the house, to the house, to the house, to the house, in the house, from three, to three.
In morphology, grammatical meanings are rarely expressed using intonation. Intonation plays an active role in conveying various shades of meaning of the imperative mood:
Get up! Sit down! Be silent!
Auxiliary words, i.e. words that do not have their own lexical meaning serve the grammatical needs of full-meaning words. Formative particles are used to denote forms of the imperative mood:
Let stronger will burst storm!
and subjunctive mood:
I would rest and sleep.
By using auxiliary verbs forms of the future complex are formed: will try, you will read, etc.
Grammatical form.
Word forms- these are varieties of the same word, lexically identical and opposed to each other in their grammatical meanings.
So, writing, writing, writing, writing, writing, writing, will write, write etc. are forms of the verb write.
Each grammatical form of a word is called word form.
Word form- this is a specific “representative” of a word in speech.
Thus, word (lexeme) it is a set of grammatical forms, or word forms.
For example, as part of a noun form river included river, river, river, river, river, about the river, rivers, rivers, rivers, rivers, about rivers.
An ordered set (or system) of grammatical forms of a word is called paradigm. Only mutable words have a paradigm.
Ways to express the grammatical meanings of a word
Most grammatical meanings are expressed in Russian synthetic way, i.e. using the means found in the word itself. Such means include endings, suffixes, prefixes, alternation of sounds, stress. For example, in the sentence Winter came in word form has arrived the meanings of the past tense, indicative mood are synthetically expressed (with the suffix - l), and. kind, units numbers (ending - A), and in the word form winter- meaning f. kind, im.p., singular (ending - A).
In the morphology of the Russian language, cases of expressing grammatical meanings occupy a significant place analytical way, i.e. using means outside the word itself. Such means include prepositions, auxiliary words. Such grammatical forms of a word consist of two components: one - the main one - is the carrier lexical meaning of the word, and the other - auxiliary - serves to express grammatical meanings. So, in analytical form I will read the lexical meaning of the word expresses the component read, and grammatical meanings of the future tense, 1st person, singular. numbers - auxiliary component will. Wed: you will read (2 sheets, singular), we will read (1 sheet, plural), they will read (3 sheets, plural).
Analytical forms of the word are included in its paradigm along with synthetic forms. For example, in the verb paradigm be in love includes word forms love, love, will love, will love, would love, let him love etc.
Some words express separate grammatical meanings suppletive way, i.e. using forms that have different roots.
For example,
person (singular) - people (plural),
talk (n.v.) - say (n.v.),
I’m walking (present tense) - walked (past tense),
good - better (v. comparison).
So, in the paradigm of one word they are combined synthetic, analytical and suppletive grammatical forms. Wed: I'm going, I'm going, I'm going...(synth.), let him go, let him go(analytical), walked(subpletive), would go(suppletive + analytical).
Grammatical category
Grammatical meanings that are in relation to opposition (contrast) are grammatical category.
Grammatical category- this is a two-sided unit of the morphological system of a language, which has a content plan (has its own semantics) and an expression plane (has its own external indicators, forms with the help of which this semantics is expressed).
From a semantic point of view, each grammatical category is characterized by what it represents set of homogeneous grammatical meanings. Thus, the general meaning of the category of number of adjectives consists of two particular meanings - the singular meaning and the plural meaning; the general meaning of the category of gender of nouns includes 3 particular meanings - the meaning of m.r., zh.r., sr.r.; general meaning time categories is divided into 3 particular meanings - the meanings of the past, future and present tense; general case semantics nouns includes particular meanings of six cases.
From a formal point of view, a grammatical category is a set of grammatical forms that serve to express private grammatical meanings. So, the unit value adjectives are expressed by forms white, white, white, white, white, white, and the meaning is plural. - forms white, white, white (o) white.
Grammatical categories differ from one another not only in the nature of oppositions, but also in the number of opposed members. For example, the grammatical category of number of nouns consists of three members and forms two oppositions, etc.
Grammatical categories belong to parts of speech and largely determine their specificity in each language. Thus, in the Russian language, nouns and adjectives have the categories of gender, number and case, each of which is manifested in them differently; Numerals have only the category of case.
PARTS OF SPEECH IN THE MODERN RUSSIAN LANGUAGE AND THE PRINCIPLES OF THEIR IDENTIFICATION
From the history of the study of parts of speech in Russian linguistics.
Parts of speech - These are groupings of words based on certain characteristics.
The doctrine of parts of speech arose in antiquity. Of the ancient scholars, Aristotle and Dionysius studied in detail the doctrine of parts of speech. True, the ancient theory of parts of speech was not strictly scientific and consistent, but nevertheless, it was introduced into the grammars of European languages and into the grammar of the Russian language.
In Russian science, many famous linguists developed a theory about parts of speech. For the first time, parts of speech were analyzed in “Russian Grammar” Mikhail Vasilievich Lomonosov (1755). M.V. Lomonosov identified 8 parts of speech: name, pronoun, verb, participle, adverb, preposition, conjunction and interjection.
Alexander Khristoforovich Vostokov, developing the teachings of M.V. Lomonosov, identified as an independent part of speech in “Russian Grammar” (1831) adjectives(for Lomonosov they formed a single class of names with nouns). Vostokov removed participles from parts of speech, which he considered as a special category of adjectives.
In adjectives A.H. Vostokov distinguished 5 groups:
1) quality;
2) possessive;
3) relative;
4) numerals (quantitative and ordinal);
5) active adjectives, i.e. participles.
Fedor Ivanovich Buslaev in “The Experience of Historical Grammar of the Russian Language” (1858), he outlined the doctrine of parts of speech in the second part - “Syntax”, thereby indicating the syntactic basis of this doctrine. Buslaev classifies significant words as 3 parts of speech: noun, adjective, verb. As part of the auxiliary parts of speech, Buslaev names five: pronoun, numeral, preposition, conjunction, adverb.
Alexander Afanasyevich Potebnya in the book “From Notes on Russian Grammar” (1874) criticizes F.I. Buslaev for classifying pronouns and numerals as function words. He deeply reveals the grammatical essence of these parts of speech.
Potebnya divides all words into real, lexical and formal. He calls the first significant parts of speech, the second - auxiliary. Nouns: noun, adjective, numeral, verb, pronoun. Functional words include conjunctions, prepositions, particles and auxiliary verbs.
With name Philip Fedorovich Fortunatov, founder of the Moscow Linguistic School, is associated with the “formal” direction in the study of grammar (1901).
Relying mainly on formal indicators, F.F. Fortunatov, as part of parts of speech, distinguished complete words (verbs, nouns, adjectives, infinitives, participles, adverbs, gerunds) and partial words (prepositions, conjunctions, particles, connectives, modal words), interjections.
In clarifying the composition of parts of speech and developing principles for their classification, great merit belongs to Lev Vladimirovich Shcherba. He outlined his views in the article “On Parts of Speech” (1928).
When characterizing parts of speech L.V. Shcherba took into account both lexical meanings and grammatical properties of words. He proposed separating the words into a special part of speech condition categories. Here he included words like it’s impossible, it’s cold, it’s necessary, it’s a shame, which, in his opinion, are unlawfully included in adverbs. Unlike adverbs, they are not adjacent to the verb, they are the predicate of an impersonal sentence, and denote a state. According to Shcherba, an independent part of speech is also bunch(be ).
All classes of words are characterized in detail in the “Syntax of the Russian Language” (1941) Alexey Alexandrovich Shakhmatov. He looked at significant words (noun, adjective, verb, adverb), unimportant(pronouns, numerals, pronominal adverbs), function words (prepositions, conjunctions, particles, connectives), interjections.
Research played an extremely important role in the formation of modern ideas about parts of speech and the determination of their boundaries. Viktor Vladimirovich Vinogradov, especially his book “Russian Language” (1947).
V.V. Vinogradov identifies four main “grammatical-semantic categories of words”:
1) words-names (noun, adjective, numeral, verb, adverb, state category). They are accompanied by pronouns. The words of this group are “the main lexical and grammatical fund of speech.” They act as members of a sentence and can form a sentence;
2) connectives, i.e. function words (linking particles, prepositions, conjunctions). They are deprived of a nominative function, “their lexical meanings are identical to grammatical ones”;
3) modal words;
4) interjections.
Theory of parts of speech V.V. Vinogradov has become widespread in scientific grammars and university courses in the Russian language.
The concept of parts of speech.
In morphology, all words are divided into categories, which are collectively called parts of speech.
Parts of speech- This lexico-grammatical categories of words distinguished by lexical meanings, by morphological features and grammatical categories, according to their syntactic functions as part of proposals.
The division of parts of speech is based on three principles:
Semantic,
Morphological,
Syntactic .
Semantic the principle takes into account that parts of speech are words (and not their individual forms) that have a certain lexical-grammatical (categorical) meaning. In accordance with this principle, in noun class words with a generalized meaning of objectivity are combined into the category of adjectives - words with the lexico-grammatical meaning of the attribute, etc.
Morphological the principle focuses attention on the morphological appearance of the word, i.e. reveals the morphological uniqueness of each word of a given part of speech.
Thus, a noun is characterized as a part of speech that has the grammatical categories of gender, number and case, and a separate word of this category belongs to a certain gender, stands in a certain case and number, which is formally expressed by the corresponding endings and suffixes.
Syntactic the principle assumes, when determining parts of speech, to proceed from the fact that each part of speech is characterized by a certain basic function in a sentence and grammatical compatibility with words of other categories. A noun, for example, plays primarily the role of subject or object in a sentence and is combined with words that can define it; adjective - the role of a determiner or predicate and is combined with a noun, etc.
The main lexical and grammatical categories of words form interconnected system, because all words are in certain relationships with each other: some are formally independent (noun), others are dependent (adjective, adverb). An adjective can only be combined with a noun, because expresses the attribute of an object. An adverb is combined with a verb, adjective or another adverb, because. expresses a sign of a characteristic or a sign of an action. A pronoun can occupy both an independent and dependent position: it indicates either the subject or object of an action, or the most general attribute of an object.
Function words always occupy a dependent position, because they "serve" significant words.
Pronouns and modal words (introductory words) occupy a special position in the system of other categories of words: they are included in the composition of the sentence, entering into a unique relationship with the entire sentence.
All words of the Russian language form a multi-degree classification:
1) parts of speech - words significant(noun, adjective, numeral, pronoun, verb, participle, gerund, adverb, state category words). These words have their full lexical meaning. In a sentence they act as main or secondary members and have certain grammatical categories;
2) official words (prepositions, conjunctions, particles) that serve to express various kinds of relationships between words in phrases and sentences or establish relationships between entire sentences, and also introduce additional shades into the meanings of independent words. Function words are incomplete, are not members of the sentence, do not have grammatical categories, and do not change;
3) interjections differ from both significant and function words, because are not members of a sentence, do not express relationships between words, but serve to express the emotional-volitional expressions of the subject. They are incomplete, indivisible, unchangeable ( Oh! Hey! hooray! Oh!);
4) modal words (perhaps, of course, maybe, probably, obviously, apparently) express the speaker’s attitude to the content of the statement; in a sentence they are introductory elements.
Modal words, most function words and a certain part of interjections are secondary categories, of later origin, arising from significant words;
5) onomatopoeia (or onomatopoeic words) seem to reproduce various sound phenomena using linguistic means ( cuckoo, crow, meow, ding-ding-ding, ding, quack-quack and etc.)
Noun
Noun as part of speech
Noun- this is a significant part of speech, which denotes objectivity in the broad sense of the word and expresses this meaning in the forms of gender, number and case, most often acting as a subject or complement.
Objectivity as a categorical meaning of a noun is widely understood. These are the names of specific items ( hat, pencil, house etc.), persons, living beings ( man, astronaut, milkmaid, bird, insect, Vasily Terkin etc.), plants ( oak, flower, dandelion), substances ( gold, oil, salt), geographical names ( Moscow, Russia, Baikal), qualities, properties ( white, blue, kindness), natural phenomena ( wind, rain, storm), action in abstraction from the subject ( running, take off, movement), i.e. all the words that answer the question Who? or What?
The meaning of the objectivity of a noun is realized in grammatical categories that characterize the noun as a part of speech. This gender categories, numbers and case.
Among the syntactic features of a noun, the first place is occupied by their use as subject and object, because in these syntactic positions, nouns can denote specific objects. Nouns can also serve as a definition, adverbial adverbial and are used as part of a nominal predicate.
For example:
vile obst. or addition.
The teacher wrote on the blackboard.
named tale
I'am a teacher .
disagree definition
Our teacher's daughter went to college.
application
The meeting was opened by Nikolai Ivanovich Petrov, a teacher.
The most important syntactic feature of a noun is its ability to attach adjectives and verbs, its ability to combine with us according to the methods of coordination (tall tree, green grass, the sea is agitated, the water is boiling etc.).
Lexico-grammatical categories of nouns:
Nouns are combined into the following lexical-grammatical categories based on common meanings and morphological properties:
a) common nouns and proper nouns;
b) animate and inanimate;
c) concrete and abstract;
d) real;
e) collective.
a) Common and proper nouns
The division of nouns into common and proper nouns is due not only to the difference in lexical meanings, but also to the difference in the grammatical properties of these words.
Common nouns nouns represent generic names homogeneous items: sister, pilot, grass, elephant, barn etc.
Own nouns are the names of individual objects that are unique in their class.
Thematic groups stand out among them:
1) first names, patronymics and surnames of people:
Anna, Mikhail Yurievich Lermontov etc.;
2) animal names:
Dzhulbars, Kashtanka etc.;
3) geographical names:
Pacific Ocean, Sakhalin, Volga, Baikal, England, Borisovo(village);
4) names of historical events, periods, socio-political phenomena:
October, Renaissance, August-91 etc.
5) names of works of art, newspapers, magazines, publishing houses, etc.:
“War and Peace”, “Komsomolskaya Pravda”, “Youth” etc.;
6) names of shops, cafes, theaters, cinemas, institutions:
"Svetlana"(deli), "Snowflake"(cafe), "Russia", "Progress" etc.;
7) astronomical names:
Mars, Saturn, Ursa Major, Pisces etc.;
8) varieties and brands of various items:
automobile "Moskvich", cologne "Lilac", candies "Bird's milk" and etc.
Common and proper nouns are different by grammatical properties: most common nouns vary by number; proper ones, as a rule, are used only in the singular form ( Kyiv, Ural, Asia etc.) or plural (Carpathians, Athens, Sokolniki and etc.). The orthographic difference between proper names and common nouns is that they are written with a capital letter.
There is a constant process of replenishing common nouns at the expense of proper ones and, conversely, proper names at the expense of common nouns. From proper names they became common nouns: August, ohm, x-ray, palekh etc. In this case, what happens is volume expansion lexical semantics of a word: it acquires a generalized meaning and denotes not one particular object, but a class of homogeneous objects. The names of literary heroes often become common nouns if they are used to characterize typical traits common to a whole group of people: Oblomovs(“lazy, weak-willed people”), Manilov(“beautiful dreamers”), keep your mouths(“people with rude inclinations”).
From common nouns they became proper nouns: Pisces, Libra(constellations), East(eastern countries), Eagle(city), "Storm"(drama), Bear(last name), etc. This transition is associated with a narrowing of lexical semantics: the name of a class of objects becomes the name of only a separate object. The grammatical properties of words also change. Wed: general Breeches(m.r. and trousers riding breeches(s.r.)); eagle(bird; plural) eagles, five eagles) and city Eagle(does not form plural forms, cannot be combined with cardinal numbers); wolf(wolf, wolf) and Nadezhda Volk(one form in all cases Nadezhda Volk, Nadezhda Volk etc.).
b) Nouns, animate and inanimate
Animate nouns include names of persons and animals: man, daughter, son, Vera, Petrov, Dima, duty officer, cow, goose, starling, spider etc. These are mainly masculine and Feminine Nouns neuter few: child, creature, face(meaning “person”), words in -ishche (monster, monster), words animal, insect, mammal. In quality defining characteristic Animate nouns are often noted for their ability to move and move independently, which inanimate objects do not possess.
But the division of nouns into animate and inanimate is built not only on semantic grounds, but also on grammatical.
Animate nouns have the form V.p., plural noun matches the form R.p., and for inanimate ones - with form I.p.
In the shape of singular animation - inanimateness is expressed only in nouns male type student, home(zero ending, II cl.) and hourly, day off(substantivized adjectives): we know student, sentry (V.p. = R.p.), but we know home, day off (V.p. = I.p.).
Some nouns do not denote living nouns; according to their grammatical properties, they are included in the category of animate ones:
1) words dead man, deceased(but not dead body);
2) names of mythical creatures like goblin, mermaid;
3) names of figures in some games: queen, ace, jack, trump;
4) doll designations: matryoshka, doll, parsley, puppet;
5) names of some dishes: eat fried chicken, crucian carp.
The category of inanimate nouns includes collection of living beings (people, crowd, platoon, flock, swarm, group etc.), although collective nouns generally do not define animate-inanimate. Animacy-inanimateness is determined only for concrete nouns.
Words virus, microbe, bacterium can be either animate or inanimate: study viruses, microbes, bacteria And viruses, microbes, bacteria, the language combination seems to hesitate whether these microorganisms should be classified as living beings.
c) Concrete and abstract nouns (abstract).
Among household names nouns, according to their lexical meanings and grammatical properties, specific and abstract words are distinguished.
Specific nouns denote objects that exist as separate instances or individuals. They may be counted: house (one, two, three... houses), i.e. combine with cardinal numbers, as well as vary by numbers (house - house, cow - cows, cook - cooks, blow - blows etc.).
Distracted(abstract) nouns denote abstract concepts - properties, qualities, actions, states: courage, novelty, honor, struggle, reading, joy and so on. The semantics of abstract nouns does not allow the idea of counting, i.e. they cannot be counted. Are they used or only in singular(the vast majority of these are laughter, glory) or only in plural (negotiations, troubles).
Plural forms can be formed in cases where they denote specific manifestations of abstract qualities and actions: feeling of joy, And little joys, joys of life(events that cause joy); beauty girls and beauty nature (beautiful places); reading books and pedagogical reading, Fetov's reading. In concrete meanings, abstract nouns are combined with cardinal numerals. For example: Now we had three worries: first - find water, second - find fuel and third - find protection from the wind(Arsenyev). I know sweet ones four joys (Bryusov).
d) Real nouns.
Real nouns mean substances of homogeneous composition(a homogeneous mass of something), materials that can be divided into parts, measured (but not counted!): dough, clay, iron, milk, sour cream, meat, chicken etc.
Thematic groups of words are distinguished:
1) names of chemical elements and their compounds ( hydrogen, manganese, sulfur, water, salt and so on.);
2) food products, feed ( butter, cheese, cereals, beef, cream, silage, hay and so on.);
3) plants, fruits, berries ( quinoa, moss, rye, figs, cherry plum, currants and so on.);
4) medications ( aspirin, cordiamine, valerian and so on.);
5) various types of raw materials, materials, fabrics ( oil, wool, flax, cotton, calico and so on.)
Real nouns have distinctive grammatical properties:
1) do not change in numbers, are used or only in singular form (dough, straw, peas) or only in plural form (sawdust, canned food, shavings);
2) may have a plural form, which denotes not a set of objects, but varieties or a continuous mass of substances: lubricants oils, mineral water, medicinal mud, white and red clay and so on.;
3) do not allow counting, do not take cardinal numbers into account (you cannot say “three flours”, “four cements”);
4) when combined with words expressing measure, they are used in the singular form ( a bucket of water, a kilogram of meat, a little salt) in contrast to concrete nouns, which are used in the plural form (cf.: stack of books, few nails);
5) in R.p. with the quantitative meaning (genitive part) of the word m.r. may have a special ending - y(- yu): a spoonful of honey, a kilogram of sugar, a meter of satin, a lot of onions, a glass of tea, buy peas, add garlic and etc.
e) Collective nouns.
Collective nouns mean indefinite set objects or persons as one indivisible whole: youth, relatives, midges, the poor, linen, birch forest, generals, foliage, proletariat and so on.
Thematic groups are distinguished - words denoting the totality:
1) persons ( nobility, professorship, lads, military and so on.);
2) animals ( midge, crow and so on.);
3) plants ( spruce forest, willow forest);
4) items ( equipment, furniture, linen, trash, junk and so on.).
5) The most important grammatical features of collective nouns are:
1) immutability in numbers, they only have a singular form;
2) inability to combine with cardinal numbers.
But they can be defined using indefinite quantitative words or combined with fractional numerals: all relatives, little greenery, one fifth of students etc.
Note: often collective nouns include words like people, gram, platoon, regiment, herd, herd, kusa, constellation, collective and so on. These words do not express collectiveness.
It denotes a separate set. This is evidenced by their grammatical features:
1) the presence of a plural form ( peoples, groups and so on.);
2) their compatibility with cardinal numbers ( two nations, five groups, three platoons and so on.)
The lexical and grammatical categories of nouns are interconnected and constantly interact in the process of language functioning.
Category of gender of nouns
General characteristics of the genus category.
Genus is a lexico-grammatical category of nouns, syntactically independent, expressing the relationship of the noun to one of three genders.
There are three genders in modern Russian:
Male;
Female;
Average.
All nouns (except words like sleigh, gate, ink, which do not have singular forms) are distributed by gender:
m.r. w.r. s.r.
air - earth - sky.
U animate nouns gender is motivated and reflects differences in biological sex ( old man - old woman, man - woman).
Genus inanimate nouns is unmotivated, the distribution of such nouns by gender is based on formal features (for example, the word a country with inflection -A- refers to feminine ; words village, field with inflections -o, -e belong to the neuter gender; word table with zero inflection and a hard final consonant of the base belongs to the masculine gender).
In terms of gender, animate and inanimate nouns have similarities and differences.
The differences are as follows:
1. Animate nouns can be masculine or feminine, which is determined by their semantics; inanimate nouns belong to one of three genders - masculine, feminine, neuter.
2. Animate nouns in some cases form gender pairs:
student - female student;
father mother;
teacher - teacher.
Inanimate nouns do not have such pairs.
The similarity is that in most cases they have the same generic endings: sister is a book, boy is a house. Both animate and inanimate nouns are equally replaced by personal pronouns he she.
Means of expressing gender meanings in the Russian language.
To express generic meanings, means of various levels are used: morphological, lexical, word-formation, syntactic.
Each genus has its own system of endings. Wed: nose, nose, nose, nose, nose, about the nose ( m.r.); head, head, head, head, head, about head ( w.r.); ear, ear, ear, ear, ear, about the ear ( s.r.).
However, there are exceptions. Okay, ending - A in Im.p., units have words not only of the feminine gender, but also some categories of nouns of the masculine gender ( governor, young man), ending - O, typical of neuter words, also have masculine nouns ( little mind, little bread, little voice and so on.).
Lexical the expression of the genus category is presented in some names of people and animals:
father mother,
brother - sister,
bull - cow and so on.
Derivational means are also used only in the names of people and animals: teacher - teacher,
Komsomol member - Komsomol member,
elephant - elephant,
lion - lioness and so on.
Syntactic means (forms of agreement) are most often used along with morphological means (endings): big house, big school, big room; my table, my hat, my pen; the maple grew, the birch grew, the tree grew. With unchangeable words, the endings of words consistent with them act as the only indicators of gender: a beautiful muffler, an expensive coat, the maestro stood up, the kangaroo jumped, our Betsy, delicious coffee, sunny Tbilisi and so on.
Gender of nouns like (small) house, (tall) young man, (such a) braggart, slob ( Wed such a slob, such a slob).
General words.
There is no general gender as a special grammatical meaning in the language. Words of general gender are a purely conventional name for one of the groups of nouns with the meaning of person.
Words of the general gender can have the meaning of both masculine and feminine depending on the gender of the person they denote:
“Now, master, look at Lyubka,” Vosmerkin continued. - This is our first singer(female birth) (A.P. Chekhov); He needs to keep his fame good lead singer (m.r.) (M. Gorky).
This category of nouns is unique, because The gender of a person is expressed syntactically - by different agreement of defining words with the same noun: a complete ignorant - a complete ignoramus, so smart - so smart.
General words denote a person by its characteristic action or property, while expressing an emotional assessment, often disapproving: couch potato, crybaby, suck-up, greedy, mean, quiet and etc.
Words of general gender are divided into 2 categories:
1) proper indeclinable nouns, these are foreign language surnames with a vowel: Benoit, Hugo, Corbusier, as well as original Russian surnames like Blagovo, Teplykh, Shevchenko, Darling;
2) common nouns and proper inflected nouns in -and I, characteristic of oral speech:
a) forms of some proper names: cheerful/cheerful Zhenya, Sasha - junior/junior, Valyusha, Valka, Zhenechka, Sanya and so on.;
b) various common nouns that give a qualitative definition of a person: grumbler, crank, ignoramus, idle talker.
From common nouns, masculine nouns should be distinguished by -and I. For example, words bouncer, thug, boss, guy, scribbler, rake, defrocked, swashbuckler male .
Nouns like doctor, geologist, director, engineer can be used equally to name male and female persons, while remaining masculine nouns!
If such a noun names a woman, then the definition for it is consistent in the masculine gender, and the predicate - in the feminine: All night long the young doctor sat (m.r.) Ivanov at the victim’s bedside.
Feminine words ( snake, fox, puppet, black grouse etc.) can be used as characteristics of male persons with a disapproving connotation: This Petrov is such a hat!
Distribution of nouns by gender.
Declinables morphological features. Only individual words and groups of words belong to one gender or another by value.
The masculine gender includes:
A) according to morphological characteristics:
1) all nouns with a stem ending in a solid consonant (except zh, sh) and -j, having a zero ending in Imp.p., singular: frost, table, oak, wardrobe, tea, nightingale and so on.;
2) all nouns with a stem ending in w, w and a soft consonant -and I in R.p., units: luggage (baggage), reed (reed), horse (horse), day (day) and so on.
b) by value:
1) words with endings -and I in Imp.p., singular, denoting male persons: servant, young man, Dima and so on.;
2) words with increasing suffixes -in(a), -ish(e), formed on the basis of masculine nouns: domina, domishche ( Wed house), tomishche ( Wed volume), boot ( Wed boot) and so on.;
3) nouns with derogatory and diminutive suffixes: - --chic(o), -ushk(o), -ishk(a), formed on the basis of masculine words: little house ( Wed house), bread ( Wed bread), liar ( Wed liar), little son ( Wed son) and so on.;
4) word journeyman(m.r.);
5) word path(m.r.).
According to morphological characteristics, the feminine gender includes:
-and I in Im.p., units: road, brigade, sister and so on. (except for words servant, young man(m.r.), etc., words with an augmentative suffix -in(a) (domina), differently indeclinable nouns on -me (crown, udder(s.r.) ) and the word child(s.r.);
2) nouns with a base on a soft consonant(except for the word path) and on w, w, having the ending -And in R.p. units: plow(s), branch(s), overcoat(s), rye(rye), mascara(s).
The neuter gender includes:
1) nouns with ending -o/-e in Im.p., units: glass, linen, field and so on.; does not include:
Nouns m.r. with suffixes -ishk (o), -ushk (o), -ishch (e);
Noun m.r. journeyman;
2) indeclinable nouns on -name: time, name, tribe, seed, udder, crown, burden, banner, stirrup, flame;
3) word child.
Unbowed nouns are distributed by gender taking into account their lexical meaning.
The masculine gender includes:
1) nouns denoting males: maestro, monsieur, bourgeois, attaché and so on.;
2) names of animals (except for the word tsetse): wildebeest, flamingo, chimpanzee, pony and so on.;
3) the names of the winds (under the influence of the generic concept of “wind”
Basic concepts of morphology.
2. Parts of speech as lexical and grammatical classes of words in modern Russian.
1. Russian grammar. M., 1980, vol. 1
2. Modern Russian language in three parts. / Shansky N.M., Tikhonov A.N.., part 2. Morphology. M., 1981.
3. Modern Russian literary language / Ed. N.M. Shansky. M., 1981.
4. Chesnokova L.D. Russian language. Difficult cases of morphological analysis. M, 1991.
5. Modern Russian language / R.N.Popov, D.P.Valkova, L.Ya.Malovitsky, A.K.Fedorov. M., 1978.
6. Modern Russian language/Ed. D.E. Rosenthal. Part 1. M., 1979.
7. Chesnokova L.D., V.S.Pechnikova. Modern Russian language in 3 parts. Part 2, Rostov-on-Don, 1997.
8. Chirkina I.P. Modern Russian language in tables and diagrams. Parts 2 and 3. M., 1985.
9. Linguistic encyclopedic dictionary. M., 1990.
1.Basic concepts of morphology. The modern Russian literary language is a system in which the sound, lexical and grammatical levels are closely interconnected.
At the center of the language system there is a word, which has a sound-letter shell, has a seminal composition, that is, a lexical meaning, changes and functions in the process of writing and speech, that is, it has grammatical properties that allow it to be combined with other words in syntactic units.
Grammar is usually understood as a system of linguistic norms and categories that determine the techniques and types of structure of words, phrases, syntagmas and sentences, and the very department of linguistics that studies this system. Grammar is divided into morphology, the subject of which is the study of a word from its grammatical meaning, grammatical form, grammatical category, and syntax, the subject of which is the study of words in phrases and sentences (simple and complex).
Basic concepts of morphology are: grammatical form, grammatical meaning, grammatical category, parts of speech, paradigm.
Grammatical meaning– abstract meaning, abstracted from the specific lexical content of a word and inherent in a whole class of words.
Grammatical meaning (GS) includes: categorical the meaning of a unit belonging to a certain lexical-grammatical class, derivational meaning (in a derived word) and all general and private civil protection orders: the name has ϶ᴛᴏ the meaning of gender, number, case, the verb has the meaning of aspect, voice, mood, tense, etc.
In addition to general and particular GPs, a word also has its own active potential, manifested, on the one hand, in the possibility of its syntactic and lexical-semantic compatibility (word valency), and on the other hand, in the fact that the word constantly shows a tendency to absorb and abstract the semantic and grammatical characteristics of one’s lexico-grammatical environment (see: LES, p. 113).
However, a word is a unit of both the lexical and grammatical levels of language and exhibits features characteristic of units of both levels.
Basic means of expressing civil rights. The Russian language is one of the languages with a rich system of form formation.
The main means of expressing civil rights is affixation. In this case, various formative affixes are used: inflections of names and verbs, formative prefixes and suffixes. Wed: sea, sun - inflection -E expresses the GC singular, neuter gender, nominative or accusative case; house, garden - zero inflection serves as an expression of the same GPs; came, sighed - the suffix -l- and zero inflection are used to express the past tense.
GZ must be expressed alternating sounds, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ accompanies affixation. Wed: push - push, freeze - freeze, jump - jump.
The civil law must also be expressed accent, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ is rarely used, as a rule, to express the GP of the perfect and imperfect forms of verbs. Wed: cut - cut, pour - pour.
In a number of cases, word forms derived from other roots are used to express GZ, which is commonly called suppletivism, and the forms themselves are called suppletive. In Russian, this method is considered unproductive. Examples: I - me, me, he - his, to him, about him, we - us, us, child - children, person - people; take - take, speak - say, catch - catch.
The Russian language belongs to the languages of the synthetic type, in connection with this, the methods of expressing civil language discussed above have synthetic type an expression in which the lexical and grammatical meanings are expressed by the form of one word.
In analytical languages, for example in English, analytical type GC expressions, in which lexical and grammatical meanings receive separate expression. The lexical meaning is expressed by a word, and the grammatical meaning is expressed by auxiliary linguistic means: auxiliary verbal forms, prepositions, particles. Wed: will write, more, less, most Beautiful.
Mixed (hybrid) type GS expressions combine features of synthetic and analytical types. Wed: V safe e, on cars e, O difficulty I .
In Russian, GP can in rare cases be expressed by word order, intonation, or syntactic agreement.
Grammatical form- ϶ᴛᴏ a linguistic sign in which the grammatical meaning finds its regular (standard) expression. A specific word in its specific morphological form is usually called word form, which appears in a syntactic unit.
An ordered collection (system) of grammatical forms is usually called paradigm. It is necessary to distinguish between concepts complete paradigm, incomplete paradigm, redundant paradigm.
Complete Paradigm- ϶ᴛᴏ paradigm containing a complete set of forms of inflection characteristic of a given part of speech for any category. The complete paradigm reflects the most frequent manifestations of inflection of any part of speech or its categories.
Thus, the complete paradigm of declension (changes in cases and numbers) of nouns is equal to 12 members: 6 singular cases. and 6 plural cases.
In Russian, only concrete nouns like house, table, book, and material, abstract, collective, as a rule, do not have opposition in number, therefore, have an incomplete paradigm of declension (cf.: milk, perfume, love, students, etc.).
Incomplete Paradigm- ϶ᴛᴏ an incomplete set of inflection forms for a specific word in any category.
Redundant Paradigm- ϶ᴛᴏ a paradigm containing a greater number of forms than in the full paradigm of inflection for any category. For example, some verbs form variable personal forms like meows and meows, drips and drips.
Grammatical category- ϶ᴛᴏ a two-sided unit of a morphological system, which has a content plan (has a system of grammatical meanings) and a plan of expression (has a system of grammatical forms expressing grammatical meanings).
Thus, the grammatical category of gender of nouns is represented by the following grammatical meanings: feminine gender, feminine gender, masculine gender, neuter gender (this is its content plan). Each GC has its own set of grammatical forms and grammatical means that express this meaning. The feminine gender is represented by nouns with inflections –a (-я) – water, earth, nouns with zero inflection – mother, rye, unchangeable nouns – madam, lady.
The grammatical category of aspect includes two grammatical meanings - the meaning of the perfect and the meaning of the imperfective, which have different grammatical means (prefixes, suffixes, etc.) to express the meaning of each type.
The essence of any grammatical category consists of oppositions (oppositions), which are formed due to the presence of particular grammatical meanings and grammatical forms. Compare: the feminine GZ is opposed to the masculine and neuter GZ, the masculine GZ is opposed to the feminine and neuter GZ, etc.
Grammatical categories differ from each other not only in the nature of oppositions, but also in the number of opposed members. For example, the GCs of number and type consist of two members and form one opposition each, the GCs of gender and time consist of three members and form 3 oppositions each; The category of case has the largest number of members and oppositions.
So, for example, the gender category for a noun and other parts of speech is different: for a noun it is classifying, non-inflectional, nominative; for an adjective it is inflectional, formal; for a verb it is presented only in the past tense and is inflectional; for a numeral it is appears in single forms and is also inflectional, etc.
However, the considered scientific concepts constitute the essence or subject of one of the sections of grammar - morphology.
In university practice, all terms are used very actively when studying different parts of speech, but in school practice they are used unreasonably rarely, and meanwhile, key terms of grammar help to systematize linguistic knowledge, compare parts of speech, categories, forms, without which, in our opinion Look, it is difficult to get by in the morphology course, as in other courses.
Basic concepts of morphology. - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Basic concepts of morphology." 2017, 2018.
Morphology is a section of grammar that studies the word as a part of speech. In the Russian language there are ten parts of speech, which are usually divided into independent, auxiliary and interjections.
Morphological analysis of words is carried out according to a certain scheme in a strict order. In order to parse a word into parts of speech, you need to determine:
- general grammatical meaning;
- morphological features (or grammatical meanings);
- syntactic role.
Analysis of a word as a part of speech is both a capacious and complete description of a separate word form, taking into account the grammatical features of its use. Each part of speech has constant and variable characteristics. When parsing, you need to be able to determine which part of speech a word belongs to, find its initial form, and identify morphological features.
Morphological analysis, an example of which is presented on our website, will help improve analysis skills.
In order to correctly perform morphological analysis of a word, you should remember the sequence and principle of analysis. So, first you should highlight the general features of parts of speech, and then find the specific features of a given word form.
General scheme for parsing parts of speech
The plan for morphological analysis of the word is as follows:
- Indicate the part of speech and its meaning, what question the word answers.
- Put the word in the initial form: Im.p., singular. - for nouns, noun, singular, m.r. - for adjectives, indefinite form - for verbs (what (to) do?).
- Determine constant features: common noun or proper noun, animate or inanimate, gender and declension of nouns; aspect, reflexivity, transitivity and conjugation of the verb; rank by meaning, degree of comparison, full or short form of adjectives.
- Characterize the form in which the word is used: for nouns, determine the number and case, for adjectives - the degree of comparison, short or full form, number, case and gender; for verbs - mood, tense, number, gender or person, if any.
- The role in the sentence is to show which member the word is in the sentence: secondary or main. Sometimes it is necessary to write out a phrase and show its syntactic role graphically.
Sample morphological analysis of a noun:
There was a jug of milk on the table.
- With milk - noun, with what?; subject
- The initial form is milk.
- Common noun, inanimate, neuter, 2nd declension
- In the singular, in the instrumental case
- Addition.
Our service uses the most modern morphology analysis technologies and will be useful to those who want to learn how to do morphological analysis correctly.
Basic rules of morphological analysis
It is important to remember that the inconstant characteristics of an adjective are determined by the word to which it obeys. It should also be taken into account that the gender of verbs can only be determined in the past tense of the singular, and the person - in the present and future tense.
To determine the syntactic role, it is necessary to know the context related to the word. Thus, a noun can act as a subject, object or circumstance. An adjective attached to a noun is a modifier, and in short form it can be a predicate. The verb is always predicate. The letter е can change the meaning of the word, and the morphological analysis will be different. For example, glass (noun, plural) and glass (verb, pr.v.).
Morphological analysis of a word online will help not only to correctly analyze the word form, but also to prepare for the Unified State Exam or Unified State Exam in the Russian language.