Individual characteristics of the perception of a person by a person. Psychology

Peculiarities of perception depend not only on life experience, personality orientation, interests, richness of the spiritual world, etc., but also on individual characteristics. What are these features?

People differ, firstly, in the nature of receiving information. Scientists identify a holistic (synthetic) type of volition, when they do not attach importance to details and do not like to go into them. This type is characterized by a focus on the essence, meaning, generalization, and not on details and particulars. The detailing (analytical) type of perception, on the contrary, is focused on details.

It is quite obvious that the most productive is a combination of both methods.

Secondly, - by the nature of the reflection of the information received. Here they distinguish descriptive And explanatory types perception. Descriptive type focused on the factual side of information: a person reflects and gives out what he sees and hears, what he reads, getting as close as possible to the original data, often without delving into their meaning. This type of perception is very common among schoolchildren, hence the frequent requests from the teacher: “Tell me in your own words.”

Explanatory type is not satisfied with what is immediately given in perception itself. He tries to find the general meaning of the information. The best thing is the golden mean. But this is not always achieved. To create harmony of these types of perception, it is necessary to know their characteristics, have an idea of their mechanisms, be able to diagnose them, and carry out pedagogical work on this basis.

Third, - according to the nature of the personality itself. Here they distinguish objective type perception, when a person is focused on the accuracy of perception, impartiality. We can say that he has developed an immunity to guesses, assumptions, conjectures, etc., and subjective type, when perception is subject to a subjective attitude towards what is perceived, a biased assessment of it, and previously formed preconceived thoughts about it. This is the most common everyday type of perception. Remember the story of A.P. Chekhov's "Chameleon".

2.5. Observation and observation

Observation- this is perception, closely related to the activity of thinking - comparison, discrimination, analysis. Observation is the purposeful, planned perception of objects and phenomena in which we are interested. To observe means not just to look, but to examine, not just to listen, but to listen, to listen, not just to smell, but to sniff. This is very accurately reflected in folk proverbs and sayings:

And he looks, but doesn’t see.

Sighted, but not sharp-sighted.

My ears are plugged for this.

Observation is always carried out with a specific cognitive purpose. It presupposes a clear understanding of the objectives of the observation and the preliminary development of a plan for its implementation. It is impossible to observe if you do not know what exactly needs to be observed and for what purpose. Clarity of purpose and objectives of observation are activated important characteristic perception - selectivity.

A person does not perceive everything that catches his eye, but identifies the most important and interesting for himself. Perception, attention, thinking and speech are combined during observation into a single process of mental activity. Therefore, observation presupposes greater activity of the individual and helps to better understand reality.

Observation is a personality trait, the ability to observe and notice characteristic, but little noticeable features of objects, phenomena, and people. It is closely related to the development of a person’s professional interests, as it is improved in the process of systematically engaging in the chosen occupation.

The ability to observe plays a huge role in a wide variety of areas of human activity.

Observation is well developed among artists, writers, and poets.

Ivan-da-Marya, St. John's wort, Chamomile, Ivan-tea, tartar, Shrouded in divination, They gaze, surrounding the bushes...

B. Pasternak.“Silence” Observation is necessary for the teacher. Without careful, constant observations, it is impossible to deeply understand the psychological characteristics of a child and outline the correct paths for his development and upbringing.

The teacher's highly developed observational skills contribute to the development of his pedagogical tact. Working with children, an observant teacher captures the children’s subtle moods, deviations from their usual state and builds his relationship with them in accordance with these states.

Observation as a personal trait professional quality develops in the teacher gradually, in the process of gaining experience pedagogical activity and introduction to psychological knowledge.

1. The nature of the teacher’s attraction of students’ attention at different stages of the lesson, depending on the age of the students. The speed of establishing attention at the beginning of the lesson. Peculiarities of attention during questioning, when perceiving new material, when repeating, when checking homework.

2. Focus and stability of students’ attention to the teacher at various stages of the lesson. Causes of distraction. The means by which the teacher achieves concentration and sustained attention of students.

3. Features of switching students’ attention to the teacher within the framework of a homogeneous activity and during the transition from one stage of the lesson to another. Switching speed (transition interval duration), switching errors. Ways to organize switching attention during the lesson.

4. Distribution of attention of students and teachers during the lesson (how it was expressed and how it was organized by the teacher).

5. Accounting by the teacher age characteristics the amount of attention of students in various learning situations (the number of task elements presented for perception, conditions, symbols, etc.).

6. Dynamics of types of students’ attention at various stages of the lesson (involuntary, voluntary, post-voluntary).7. Features of attention manifestations depending on its external or internal orientation when reading a book, looking at a book or map, a teacher’s story, as well as during recall of a formula, poem, reflection and in other situations.

8. Means (methods, techniques) by which students regulated their attention, organizing it in accordance with the requirements and tasks of the teacher in a specific learning situation.

9. The presence or absence of a synchronous form of collective attention. The reasons behind this form of attention (for example, high degree cohesion of mental, emotional or active concentration of students).

10. Reasons for the lack of synchrony of attention (discrepancy between individual and given pace, lack of unity of assessment, understanding, assimilation; inability to correlate the main and secondary, etc.).

11. The dependence of students’ attention in the lesson on the content of the material - its imagery, accessibility, emotionality, as well as on the teacher’s ability to activate the entire cognitive sphere of the student’s personality, on the teacher’s control, on the students’ attitude to the teacher and to the lesson, on the teacher’s ability to psychologically competently use demonstration material 1.

When working with a map, it is essential to capture what is being observed as completely as possible. The main difficulties of observation are to highlight the main thing from what you see. At the same time, it is important not to replace the actually observed fact with your own interpretation.

1 See: Baskakova I.L. Attention of a preschooler, methods of its study and development. Studying the attention of schoolchildren. - M.; Voronezh, 1995. -S. 40-41.explain to yourself. To systematize and understand such spontaneous observations, special schemes are being developed. One of these diagrams intended to be filled out by the teacher is the “Observation Map” by D. Stott. It is aimed at identifying various types of behavioral disorders. This map consists of a description different forms behaviors that teachers can observe in children. The teacher is asked to assess whether or not the child exhibits a particular form of behavior. The concentration of symptoms in any one area allows us to understand the causes of the child’s emotional difficulties, behavioral disorders, etc.

Let's take one of the parts of this map as an example.

“Anxiety towards adults. Anxiety and uncertainty about whether adults are interested in him, whether they love him...

1. Performs his duties very willingly.

2. Shows an excessive desire to greet the teacher.

3. Too talkative (bothers with his chatter).

4. Very willingly brings flowers and other gifts to the teacher.

5. Very often brings And shows the teacher the objects, drawings, models, etc. he found.

6. Being overly friendly towards the teacher.

7. Tells the teacher an exaggerated amount about his family activities.

8. “Sucks up”, tries to please the teacher

9. Always finds an excuse to keep the teacher busy with his special someone.

10. Constantly needs help and control from the teacher” 1.

Individual characteristics of perception

Peculiarities of perception depend not only on life experience, personality orientation, interests, wealth of the spiritual world, etc., but also on individual characteristics. What are these features?

It is quite obvious that the most productive is a combination of both methods.

Explanatory type is not satisfied with what is immediately given in perception itself. He tries to find the general meaning of the information. The best thing is the golden mean. But this is not always achieved. In order to create harmony between these types of perception, it is extremely important to know their characteristics, have an idea of their mechanisms, be able to diagnose them, and carry out pedagogical work on this basis.

2.5. Observation and observation

Observation- this is perception, closely related to the activity of thinking - comparison, discrimination, analysis. Observation is the purposeful, planned perception of objects and phenomena in the knowledge of which we are interested. To observe means not just to look, but to examine, not just to listen, but to listen, to listen, not just to smell, but to sniff. This is very accurately reflected in folk proverbs and sayings:

And he looks, but doesn’t see.

Sighted, but not sharp-sighted.

My ears are plugged for this.

Observation is always carried out with a specific cognitive purpose. It presupposes a clear understanding of the objectives of the observation and the preliminary development of a plan for its implementation. It is impossible to observe if you do not know what exactly needs to be observed and for what purpose. Clarity of the purpose and objectives of observation activates an important characteristic of perception - selectivity.

A person does not perceive everything that catches his eye, but identifies the most important and interesting for himself. Perception, attention, thinking and speech are combined during observation into a single process of mental activity. For this reason, observation involves greater activity of the individual and helps to better understand reality.

The ability to observe plays a huge role in a wide variety of areas of human activity.

Observation is well developed among artists, writers, and poets.

Ivan-da-Marya, St. John's wort, Chamomile, Ivan-tea, tartar, Shrouded in divination, They gaze, surrounding the bushes...

Observation as a personal professional quality develops in a teacher gradually, in the process of gaining experience in teaching and becoming familiar with psychological knowledge.

1. The nature of how the teacher attracts the attention of students at different stages of the lesson based on the age of the students. The speed of establishing attention at the beginning of the lesson. Peculiarities of attention during questioning, when perceiving new material, when repeating, when checking homework.

4. Distribution of attention of students and teachers during the lesson (how it was expressed and how it was organized by the teacher).

5. The teacher takes into account the age-related characteristics of students’ attention span in various learning situations (the number of task elements presented for perception, conditions, designations, etc.).

6. Dynamics of types of students’ attention at various stages of the lesson (involuntary, voluntary, post-voluntary).7. Features of manifestations of attention based on its external or internal orientation when reading a book, looking at a book or map, a teacher’s story, as well as during recall of a formula, poem, reflection and in other situations.

8. Means (methods, techniques) by which students regulated their attention, organizing it in accordance with the requirements and tasks of the teacher in a specific learning situation.

9. The presence or absence of a synchronous form of collective attention. The reasons that determine this form of attention (for example, a high degree of cohesion in the mental, emotional or active concentration of students).

At the same time, a teacher, like any specialist, by the nature of his activity communicates a lot with people, a lot of observations accumulate without a special plan, spontaneously. This rich experience of observing a child in different situations creates the basis for what is commonly called “pedagogical intuition,” which allows, almost without thinking, to choose the only correct words that this particular student needs. At the same time, this experience often remains meaningless and ill-conceived. It is very difficult to transfer it to another teacher, sometimes even difficult

1 See: Baskakova I.L. Attention of a preschooler, methods of its study and development. Studying the attention of schoolchildren. - M.; Voronezh, 1995. -S. 40-41.explain to yourself. It is important to note that special schemes are being developed to systematize and understand such spontaneous observations. One of these diagrams intended to be filled out by the teacher is “Observation Map” by D. Stott. It is aimed at identifying various types of behavioral disorders. This map consists of a description of different behaviors that the teacher can observe in children. The teacher is asked to assess whether or not the child exhibits a particular form of behavior. The concentration of symptoms in any one area allows us to understand the causes of the child’s emotional difficulties, behavioral disorders, etc.

Let's take one of the parts of this map as an example.

ʼʼAnxiety towards adults. Anxiety and uncertainty about whether adults are interested in him, whether they love him...

1. Performs his duties very willingly.

2. Shows an excessive desire to greet the teacher.

3. Too talkative (bothers with his chatter).

4. Very willingly brings flowers and other gifts to the teacher.

5. Very often brings And shows the teacher the objects, drawings, models, etc. he found.

6. Being overly friendly towards the teacher.

7. Tells the teacher an exaggerated amount about his family activities.

8. “Sucks up”, tries to please the teacher

9. Always finds an excuse to keep the teacher busy with his special someone.

10. Constantly needs help and control from the teacherʼʼ 1.

Individual characteristics of perception - concept and types. Classification and features of the category “Individual characteristics of perception” 2017, 2018.

Ticket No. 1

Types of perception. Individual characteristics and development of perception.

Perception is the reflection of objects and phenomena with their direct impact on the senses.

I. According to the modality of the analyzer, they are distinguished: visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory and gustatory perceptions.

Incorrect perception of the size of an object. For example, a tall person next to a short one seems even taller than he actually is; circles of the same diameter appear different depending on whether they are surrounded by a larger or smaller one; identical objects appear to be of different sizes if they are perceived as being at a certain distance from each other, while an object located closer appears larger, and a distant one appears smaller than its actual size.

illusions are explained by the law of perception, according to which the size of objects is assessed not by the actual size of their images on the retina, but in accordance with an assessment of the distance at which these objects are located.

The perception of time is a reflection of the duration and sequence of phenomena or events. It largely depends on the content of the activity. Time, filled with events that are significant to a person, passes quickly. If there are few events or they are of little significance, time passes slowly. When remembering events of the past, on the contrary, periods of time filled with events in the past are remembered as long, those not filled with events - as short.

The assessment of time is also affected by the personality’s attitude. Anticipation of unpleasant events causes the perception of quickly passing time. When you wait for something pleasant, it seems that what you want does not come for a long time.

Perception is caused by complex stimuli acting simultaneously, is carried out by the simultaneous and coordinated activity of several analyzers and occurs with the participation of associative parts of the cerebral cortex and speech centers.

Excitations are captured by the senses and transmitted to the detector neurons of the corresponding brain centers of the analyzers. Detector neurons are highly specialized nerve cells that can selectively respond to a particular stimulus.

Simultaneous or sequential stimulation of these brain regions leads to the formation of temporary nerve connections between them, to complex integrative nervous processes.

Compared to sensations, perception is the highest form of analytical-synthetic activity of the brain. Without analysis, meaningful perception is not possible. Analysis ensures the selection of the object of perception, on the basis of which a synthesis of all properties of the object is carried out in

complete image.

Ticket number 2.

Types and properties of attention. Development of attention.

Attention is the selective focus of human consciousness on certain objects and phenomena

There are several approaches to classifying types of attention.

I. According to the characteristics of the objects to which attention is directed, sensory and intellectual attention are distinguished.

Sensory attention is attention that is directed to directly perceived objects

Intellectual attention is attention that is directed to ideas about these objects.

II. Based on the presence or absence of cultural means, attention is divided into direct and indirect.

Direct attention is not directed by anything other than the object to which it is directed and which corresponds to the actual interests and needs of the person.

Indirect attention is regulated by special means, for example, gestures, words, pointing signs, objects.

III. According to their origin and methods of implementation, involuntary, voluntary and complex (pro-voluntary) are distinguished.

Not voluntary attention– this is attention that arises and is maintained regardless of a person’s conscious intentions and goals

Voluntary attention is clearly expressed conscientious character and is observed during the deliberate performance of any activity.

Attentiveness is a personality trait associated with the ability to voluntarily pay attention.

Complex (post-voluntary) attention is attention that is voluntary in its origin and involuntary in its course. The appearance of this type of attention is associated with the emergence of interest in this activity.

Properties of attention

Attention has a number of properties, among which the most important are volume, stability, concentration, switchability and distribution.

The volume of attention is the number of objects perceived by a person at the same time.

Stability is the time of maintaining steady attention on an object. The reasons for the stability of attention are related to individual typological characteristics, mental states, motivation, and external conditions for carrying out activities.

Concentration is the degree and intensity of concentration on an object, i.e. the main indicator of attention.

A disorder of concentration is absent-mindedness. There are two types of absent-mindedness.

1. Absent-mindedness as the inability to concentrate attention for any length of time. It is expressed in pathological distraction. Such absent-mindedness can occur due to extreme conditions, age or illness.

2. Pseudo-absent-mindedness as one-sided concentration, expressed in the fact that a person does not notice what, from his point of view, seems insignificant to him. Here, absent-mindedness acts as the flip side of concentration. This type of absent-mindedness is often found among many famous scientists.

Switchability is a deliberate transfer of attention, which is determined by the speed of transition from one type of activity to another.

Distribution of attention is a person’s ability to perform several types of activities simultaneously.

Development of attention

Initially (up to 10 months) the child is only capable of involuntary attention. Later, voluntary attention develops, which coexists with involuntary attention for the rest of life. Voluntary attention arises in social contact. When the mother names an object and points it to the child, thereby distinguishing it from the environment, a restructuring of attention occurs. It ceases to respond only to the child’s natural indicative reactions, which are controlled either by novelty or the strength of the stimulus, and begins to obey the speech or gesture of the adult interacting with it. When a child develops his own speech, he can name an object himself and thus arbitrarily distinguish it from the rest of the environment. The function of analyzing the environment, which was previously divided between an adult and a child, becomes internal for the child and is performed by him independently.

At the beginning of its development, voluntary attention goes through certain stages. They are revealed in the fact that, while examining the environment, the child can first note only a number of furnishings, then is able to give a holistic description of the situation, and, finally, becomes able to give an interpretation of what happened.

Ticket number 3.

Ticket number 4.

Ticket number 5.

Ticket number 6.

Ticket number 7.

Perception as a holistic reflection of objects and phenomena. Properties of perception. Illusions of perception.

– this is a reflection of objects and phenomena with their direct impact on the senses.

Unlike sensations, which reflect individual properties of the stimulus, perception reflects the object as a whole in the totality of its properties. The product of perception is the image of an object or phenomenon.

Perception cannot be reduced to the sum of individual sensations, but represents a qualitatively new stage of sensory cognition with its inherent characteristics.

The ability to feel is given to a person from birth and does not require any activity on the part of the subject.

The ability to perceive develops and improves in a person through life experience. When perceiving an object, a person tends to rely on the experience of previous perceptions of this object - this phenomenon is called apperception.

The basis for the formation of perception as the highest mental function, and active movement serves as the current mental process.

Held and Hayne's elegant experiments on kittens confirm the role of active movement in the development of perception. The essence of the experiments is this. Newborn kittens were kept in the dark and exposed to light only in a special pen.

This machine was like a carousel with two baskets for kittens, each of which could move around three axes: the main axis of the carousel, the vertical and horizontal axes baskets. Only one kitten was actively moving, for which holes were made in the basket for its paws. The other could not make any movements and moved passively - he was carried by the first. At the same time, both baskets made similar movements, so the kittens received the same visual impressions at the same time.

Subsequently, the kitten that moved independently did not show any visual impairment, while the passive one showed an inability to distinguish shape. The fact is that in the first kitten changes in visual stimulation were associated with its active movements, in the second there was no such connection

I.By The modalities of the analyzer are distinguished: visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory and gustatory perceptions.

II. According to the forms of movement of matter, they distinguish: perception of space, time and movement.

The most studied is the perception of space; it includes the perception of the shape, volume and size of objects, the perception of the depth and distance of objects, linear and aerial perspective.

The perception of space also includes the study of various visual illusions.

Visual illusions are incorrect or distorted perception size, shape and distance of the object.

Types of visual illusions include:

Revaluation of vertical lines. Of two lines of the same size, the vertical one is always visually perceived as significantly larger compared to the horizontal one.

The perception of time is a reflection of the duration and sequence of phenomena or events.

The perception of movements is a reflection of the direction and speed of the spatial existence of objects. It helps a person navigate the environment.

III.Depending on the purpose, there are: intentional and unintentional perception.

Intentional perception is characterized by the fact that it is based on a consciously set goal. It is associated with certain volitional efforts of a person.

Unintentional perception is a perception in which objects of the surrounding reality are perceived without a specifically set task, when the process of perception is not associated with the volitional efforts of a person.

IV.Depending on the degree of organization, they are distinguished: organized (observation) and unorganized perception.

Organized perception (observation) is a purposeful, systematic perception of objects or phenomena in the surrounding world. Observation differs from simple perception in that the second signaling system plays a leading role here.

Disorganized perception is the usual unintentional perception of reality.

In addition, in psychology a special type of perception is identified and analyzed separately, which is called social perception.

It includes the perception of other people, the perception of the living environment and the perception of the social environment.

Currently, there is no generally accepted psychological classification of perceptual illusions. Illusions occur in all sensory modalities. Visual illusions, for example the Müller–Lyer illusion, have been studied better than others.

An example of a proprioceptive illusion is the “drunk” gait of an experienced sailor, to whom the deck seems stable, but the ground moves away from under his feet, like the deck during a strong vertical motion. An element of uncertainty comes from sound localization, such as the “ventriloquist effect,” or attributing the voice to the puppet rather than the performer.

Taste illusions are illusions of contrast: in this case, the taste of one substance affects subsequent taste sensations. For example, salt can impart clean water sour taste, and sucrose makes it bitter.

A number of theories have been put forward to explain illusions. According to I. Roca, Gestalt psychology is most suitable for this purpose, since it points out the fallacy of the constancy hypothesis.

From the point of view of this theory, illusions are not something anomalous or unexpected: perception does not depend on a single stimulus, but on their interaction in the visual field. For example, if a neutral color is based on the ratio of intensities of neighboring areas, then the contrast will be illusory, but predictable.

The theory of bias, or false comparison, explains the emergence of illusions based on the effect of asymmetry. For example, the Müller–Lyer illusion is a result of the lengthening effect of diverging wedges rather than the shortening effect of converging wedges.

Ticket number 8.

Ticket No. 11

Ticket number 12.

Attention research.

Attention is the selective focus of human consciousness on certain objects and phenomena.

IN human life attention does a lot various functions. The selection of significant and inhibition of influences that are not significant for the course of a given activity depends on attention. Attention is a necessary condition for performing any activity and affects the effectiveness of communication. Attention is related to directionality and selectivity. cognitive processes. With the help of attention, a person exercises control over the course of his activities.

One of the significant features of attention is that it cannot be isolated in its “pure” form as an independent mental process. It is invisibly present in any acts of communication and activity, accompanies cognitive, emotional and volitional processes, forming their integral component. Attention is referred to as universal cognitive processes involved in the organization and implementation of all levels of human cognition. Unlike other cognitive processes, it does not have its own product. Attention can be considered not so much as an independent mental process, but as some general property any processes and actions.

2. Physiological foundations and theories of attention

Attention does not have such a special nerve center as visual, auditory and other sensations and perceptions, as well as movements that are associated with the activity of certain areas of the cortex cerebral hemispheres brain.

Physiologically, attention is determined by the work of the same nerve centers with the help of which mental processes accompanied by attention are carried out. But it means the presence of areas with increased and decreased excitability, interconnected in their activity according to the law of negative induction: when strong excitation begins in some area of the cerebral cortex, then at the same time, by induction, in other areas of the cortex not associated with the performance of this activity , inhibition, attenuation, or even complete cessation of the nervous process occurs, as a result of which some centers are excited, others are inhibited.

Attention ensures, due to the phenomenon of dominance, the presence in each this moment in the cerebral cortex, an area (focus) with increased nervous excitability, dominant (dominant) over the rest of the cortex. As a result of this, human consciousness is concentrated on certain objects and phenomena.

Theories of attention

N. N. Lange, analyzing the most well-known approaches to understanding the nature of attention, combined existing theories and the concept of attention into several groups.

1. Attention as a result of motor adaptation. Adherents of this approach proceed from the fact that since a person can voluntarily transfer attention from one object to another, attention is impossible without muscle movements. It is muscle movements that ensure the adaptation of the senses to the conditions of best perception.

2. Attention as a result of the limited scope of consciousness. Without explaining what is meant by the volume of consciousness, I. Herbert and W. Hamilton believe that more intense ideas are able to displace or suppress less intense ones.

3. Attention as a result of emotion. This theory has received the greatest recognition in English associative psychology. It is based on the statement about the dependence of attention on the emotional coloring of the representation. For example, the following statement by a representative of this point of view, J. Mile, is quite well known: “To have a pleasant or painful feeling or idea and to be attentive to them is the same thing.”

4. Attention as a result of apperception, i.e. as a result of an individual's life experience

5. Attention as a special activity of the spirit. Proponents of this position take attention to a primary and active ability, the origin of which is inexplicable.

6. Attention as increased nervous irritability. According to this hypothesis, attention is caused by an increase in local irritability of the central nervous system.

7. The theory of neural suppression attempts to explain the basic fact of attention - the predominance of one representation over another - by the fact that one physiological nervous process delays or suppresses others physiological processes, the result of which is the fact of a special concentration of consciousness.

Ticket number 13.

Ticket number 14.

A brief history of the development of psychology as a science.

In the history of any science, two periods should be distinguished: the pre-scientific period and the actual scientific period of development. Until the moment when science announces its birth, there is a long process of accumulation of knowledge within the framework of other sciences and in everyday experience. The previous period plays a big role in preparing the categorical and methodological basis of any science.

Addressing the past of science can be done from two different positions. The position of antiquarianism (translation - ancient) involves the introduction scientific fact in the context of the era, finding out how this or that phenomenon was interpreted by the author himself scientific discovery. The position of presentism (translation - present tense) is to correlate the historical source with modern knowledge about the fact described in it. For example, R. Descartes explains the mechanism of the influence of external stimuli on our senses using the term “animal spirits”. An antiquarian historian of science would examine a fragment that includes this kind of description from the point of view of the metaphysical ideas that were dominant in Descartes's time. A presentist, on the contrary, would find in this model an undoubted similarity with the doctrine of the nerve impulse as a carrier of sensory information.

Scientific psychological knowledge has matured for a long time in the depths of other sciences, primarily philosophy and physiology. Many scientists have increased the volume of psychological knowledge, while being representatives of other disciplines. “The concentration of psychological knowledge occurred in many areas of the intellectual work of mankind,” writes M.G. Yaroshevsky. At the same time, knowledge that was initially positioned as psychological, after a certain time turned out to be very far in content from what is commonly included in the circle of psychological knowledge today. According to M.G. Yaroshevsky, the tasks of the history of science come down to: 1) studying the internal patterns of change in categories, concepts and methodological apparatus of science; 2) identifying the dependence of the processes of generation, perception and transfer of knowledge on the “social demand” characteristic of the time when the scientist developed his ideas; 3) reconstruction of personal uniqueness (motives, worldview, thinking style, character traits, abilities, etc.) of scientists of the past. The first of the three tasks is implemented primarily in the presentist type of analysis, the second in the antiquarian type, and the third requires a mixed type of analysis. The use of these two lines of studying the development of scientific thought sets the position of the subject of the history of psychology in a system of three coordinates: historiological

Stage I – psychology as the science of the soul. This definition of psychology was given more than two thousand years ago. They tried to explain all the incomprehensible phenomena in human life by the presence of a soul.

Stage II – psychology as a science of consciousness. It appears in the 17th century in connection with the development of natural sciences. The ability to think, feel, desire was called consciousness. The main method of study was a person's observation of himself and the description of facts.

Stage III – psychology as a science of behavior. Appears in the 20th century. The task of psychology is to set up experiments and observe what can be directly seen, namely human behavior, actions, reactions (the motives causing the actions were not taken into account).

Stage IV – psychology as a science that studies objective patterns, manifestations and mechanisms of the psyche.

Like any system scientific knowledge, psychology has its own history, which can be divided into four stages.

Ticket number 15.

Ticket number 16.

Methods for studying personality.

To characterize a person as a subject of activity, it is necessary and sufficient to characterize his attitude to activity. Since human consciousness is generally active, relationships are not only the mental properties of the individual, but also the qualitative features of mental processes: observation, sensitivity, attentiveness. How relationships can be characterized and motives for activity: needs and interests.
That's why general principles psychological research of personality is determined by how the relationships of the individual are understood.
Personal characteristics (generally): status, position, roles, functions, goals, values, motivational sphere, character, abilities.
Problems of personality research:
1. Personality properties are always individually unique. To identify originality, an individual situation is necessary. However, the experimental conditions must be common to everyone. The solution is a formative experiment (for example, pedagogical or therapeutic).
2. Personal properties are morally assessed properties; therefore, the subject controls his manifestations extremely intensely and, striving for a positive assessment, may reveal properties that are not those that are actually inherent to him. Methods to combat the test installation:
- creation of various personality scales (only in questionnaires);
- introducing a time limit;
- change of the valuation object;
- creation of imaginary non-evaluation (the subject does not know about the presence of the experimenter).
3. The experimenter is interested in a more complete manifestation of activity. But every experiment presupposes its limitation. This is partially eliminated in projective techniques and analysis of activity products.
Methods:
Conversation method - the specific role of conversation as a method of personality research stems from the fact that in it the subject gives a verbal report about the properties and manifestations of his personality. Therefore, in a conversation, the subjective side of the personality is revealed most fully - self-awareness and self-esteem of personality traits, experiences and emotional attitude expressed in them, etc.
Great importance has the correct formulation of questions. Prerequisite at this method- the presence of confidential contact between the subject and the experimenter.
The characterological conversation method is a special form natural experiment.
A special place in the system of research methods, intermediate between the observation method and the artificial experiment, is occupied by the “natural experiment” by A.F. Lazursky. A characteristic feature of a natural experiment is that it brings research closer to natural conditions; carried out in the normal environment for the subject. Using the method of natural experiment, it is possible to observe a subject under certain conditions in purposefully created situations, organizing the observation according to a pre-planned plan. Observing the behavior and reactions of the subject allows us to get an idea of the characteristics of the personality as a whole and its individual properties.
Biographical method - allows you to study the stages of life, features of personality formation, and can be an addition to the interpretation of data obtained by experimental methods.
Questionnaires, as one of the methods for studying personality, are used to diagnose the degree of expression of certain personal characterological or other traits in an individual.
Two types of questionnaires can be distinguished: one-dimensional - one characteristic is diagnosed, and multidimensional - they provide information about a number of different personality traits. Only closed questions.
Questionnaires consist of a number of scales or factors. Each scale includes a set of questions/statements aimed at identifying a particular property.
Examples of questionnaires:
MMPI - main scales (10): hypochondria, depression, hysteria, psychopathy, masculinity-femininity, paranoia, psychasthenia, schizophrenia, hypomania, social introversion + 3 controls (lies, reliability control).
16-PF - Cattell's 16-factor personality questionnaire. PDO (Patacharacterological Diagnostic Questionnaire) - identifying character accentuations. A study of extraversion-introversion and neuroticism according to Eysenck. Study of personal and situational anxiety (Spielberger-Hanin). Express diagnosis of empathy. Assessing the level of aspirations, etc.
The disadvantage of using questionnaires is that personality characteristics are based on self-assessment data.

Projective methods
A group of methods intended for personality diagnosis, in which subjects are asked to react to an uncertain (ambiguous) situation; for example, interpret the content of the plot of a picture (TAT), react to a frustrating situation, taking the place of the hero in the Rosenzweig method, give an interpretation of vague outlines (Rorschach spots)... Answers to tasks of projective methods cannot be regarded as correct or incorrect, a wide range is possible range of solutions, while it is assumed that the nature of the subject’s answers is determined by personality traits that are projected onto the answers. For the subject, the goal of projective methods is relatively disguised, which reduces his ability to make the desired impression on the experimenter.
Projective methods can conditionally include the method of analyzing the products of activity - the study of the products of creative activity (painting, poetry, diaries...).

Ticket number 17.

Ticket number 18.

Brain and psyche.

Among the many mysteries of nature, the solutions to which he is working modern science Perhaps one of the most complex is the brain - the finest nervous apparatus, which represents the highest form of organized matter in the part of the universe known to us. Assuming that they have always sought to find out how it works and functions.

The idea that the brain is an organ of the soul, the brain belongs to the ancient Greeks, forms the material basis of mental phenomena, scientists to the doctor Alcmaeon from Croton (6th century BC), who came to this conclusion as a result of observations and surgical operations. In particular, he established that “two narrow paths” go from the cerebral hemispheres to the eye sockets.

Believing that sensation arises due to the special structure of the peripheral sensory apparatus, Alcmaeon at the same time argued that there is a direct connection between the sense organs and the brain.

Then the doctrine of the psyche as a product of the brain arose, thanks to the discovery of the dependence of sensations on the structure of the brain, and this, in turn, became possible thanks to the accumulation of empirical facts. But sensations, according to Alcmaeon, are the starting point of all cognitive work. “The brain provides the sensation of hearing, sight, smell, from the latter arise memory and ideas (opinion), and from memory and ideas that have reached unshakable strength, knowledge is born, which is such because of this strength.” Thus, other mental processes arising from sensations were associated with the brain, although knowledge about these processes, unlike knowledge about sensations, could not be based on anatomical and physiological experience.

Following Alcmaeon, Hippocrates also interpreted the brain as an organ of the psyche, believing that it was a large gland. “People should know that from the brain, and only from the brain, arise our pleasures, joys, laughter and jokes, as well as our sorrows, pain, sadness and tears. With the help of the brain we think, see, hear, distinguish ugly from beautiful, bad from good, pleasant from unpleasant. In other words, with the help of the brain, what we call “spiritual life” is carried out.”

From medicine, these ideas moved into philosophy.

Alcmaeon's discovery of the brain as an organ of the psyche was considered a hypothesis for several centuries.

Aristotle, who himself went through excellent medical school, returns to the “heart-centric” scheme. “The brain, in his opinion, is not an organ of the psyche, but an apparatus that cools and regulates the heat of the blood.”

So, the study of the brain has gone through a long history, in which two main trends stand out:

The concept of strict localization of mental phenomena;

The view that the brain functions as a single unit.

As a result of a long series of studies, it has been established that the brain is differentiated into various areas with functional uniqueness.

Thanks to the advances in the fine anatomy of the brain, physiology (in particular, electrophysiology), psychology, neurology and neurosurgery, it was possible to show that the brain is, first of all, a complex mental system that acts as a differentiated whole.

The brain of a living person is a small oval body with an uneven surface, consisting of a pliable jelly-like substance. How does this body (whose average mass is 1500) produce thoughts and feelings, and control the subtle movements of the artist’s hand? How are the processes that arise in it connected with philosophy and religion, poetry and prose, kindness and hatred? How does this grayish-white jelly-like mass constantly accumulate ideas and knowledge, causing the body to perform actions of varying complexity - from a simple raising of an arm to the virtuoso movements of a gymnast or surgeon?

THEM. Sechenov, the father of Russian physiology, suggested (“Reflexes of the Brain”, 1863) that “the brain - the organ of consciousness and will - works on the principle of a reflex (but significantly modified)”, proving that the actions of the body, regulated by the psyche, are similar to reflexes in the sense that they arise in the vital encounters of the organism with the environment and, through the centers of the brain, include the muscular system in the cycle of these vital encounters. Sechenov's ideas - about the signaling function of the psyche, about the circular control of movement, about the self-regulation of the body's behavior - were later continued by Pavlov.

The brain is a bodily device like other organs. But his activity - according to Pavlov - has qualitatively special characteristics and laws. He called it higher nervous activity. Clarifying the specifics of this form of activity, Pavlov next to the word higher nervous activity put in brackets the term “behavior,” which sounded special in his mouth.

Conclusion: The brain is not a simple reflector of impulses, but an organ that perceives signals about that external environment, in which the body acts in order to respond adequately to it. A signal is sent from the muscles back to the brain about whether the command sent by the brain to the executive organs has been correctly executed. This is how the circular control of the body’s movements occurs. It is impossible without the psyche, which informs about what is happening in the outside world. But the psyche acts as a signal, and not a simple sensation or perception.

3. Psyche

The growth of life is not in one muscle development,

As it grows, in it, like in a temple,

The ministry of spirit and mind is growing.

V. Shakespeare "Hamlet".

When does psyche arise? Do plants have a “soul”? What is associated with the most important event for the existence of the human race - the awakening of consciousness?

“The psyche does not exist outside the material process of life of physically organized substances in a certain way. Therefore, we study the development of the psyche not in its separation from the development of life, but precisely in connection with the development of life - as the development of its highest forms, generated by the development of certain material conditions.”

Leontyev A.N. Essay on the development of the psyche.

Think about and discuss the situation. Anna and Peter were preparing for the test together. Peter suggested reading the text they were studying out loud in order to remember it better. "For what? — Anna was perplexed. “You can just read it, everything will be remembered.” Why do you think Anna and Peter different approaches to memorizing educational material? Which one is better?

Individual learning features

Each person has an individual learning style. This makes it possible for people with different characteristics of the nervous system and different abilities to achieve success in learning.

Our entire life experience can be described with the words: “I know”, “I can”, “I can”, “I want”. Based on what we know, can, can and want, our individual learning style is formed.

Learning style determines the characteristics of the approach to learning, since each of us has our own learning preferences. Some shy away from active learning, take a passive position (“I will do it if they ask me to do it”), others, on the contrary, are active and interested in the result (“I like to learn! I want to do it myself”). Some believe that it is better to cooperate in the learning process (“Let’s study together, because it’s more interesting together”), while others are focused on competition (“I will definitely study better than you”).

Find the information you need and answer the question. How do individual learning characteristics affect its effectiveness?

If in our studies we focus on practical activities, then in the learning process it will be important for us to consider and use specific situations, and if we are interested in analytical activities, then logical analysis and theoretical justifications are important.

Individual characteristics of perception

Each person perceives objects and phenomena very individually. We differ from each other in the leading channel of information perception.

In the process of perception, various analyzers of our body interact with each other. For example, tactile and kinesthetic analyzers take part in the perception of touch, and in the process of visual perception the motor analyzer is involved, which provides eye movements.

How can our individual perceptions influence the effectiveness of learning?

For example, visual learners are characterized by a “visual” learning style; they often use the phrases “show me”, “write to me”

and perform tasks best after reading a text or watching another person perform a task. The visual learning style involves notes, notes in the margins, and the use of tables, diagrams, and drawings. These are the techniques that are effective in teaching visual learners.

Auditory learners use an “auditory” learning style because they are better at processing new information presented in words and sounds.

During the learning process, they ask for “tell me”, “let's discuss this issue together,” and perform best on tasks after they have carefully listened to relevant information. This style of learning involves repeating material out loud, discussing, and using audio recordings. These are the techniques that are effective in teaching auditory learners.

The kinesthetic (tactile) learning style involves physical touching the objects being studied. During the learning process, a kinesthetic learner always tries to independently complete a task and perform actions with objects. He often says “let me try.” Best form For him, learning is practical work and experimentation.

Reference points. There are certain individual characteristics of perception and learning. People differ from each other in the leading channel of information perception. Visual perceivers most information using a visual analyzer, auditory - through an auditory analyzer, and kinesthetics - using analyzers of touch, smell, and taste.

Questions for Review and Discussion

I level

1. What are the individual characteristics of perception?

2. What individual learning characteristics do you know?

3. Can learning style change over time? Why?

Level II

4. How do visual learners differ from auditory learners?

5. What teaching techniques are effective for kinesthetic learners?

6. What does learning style depend on?

Level III

7. What are the features of your teaching approach?

8. What do you know about the main approaches to learning based on different motivations?

9. How is training related to practical activities?

IV level

10. Why do different people perceive the same objects and phenomena very individually?

11. Prove with examples that in the process of perception different analyzers interact with each other.

12. How can individual perceptions influence the effectiveness of learning?

Practical task No. 6

Determining your individual learning style

Goal: learn to identify your individual learning style. Equipment and materials: Personal learning style questionnaire.

Work order

Read the proposed questionnaire items carefully. If you agree with the statement, then mark “+” next to its number on a piece of paper; if not, mark “-”.

1. I remember material better when I write it down.

2. I always take a lot of notes.

3. I remember pictures, words, numbers well.

4. I count video and TV programs in the best ways training.

5. When I read, I always emphasize what is important for better remembering.

6. I use colored pencils to highlight the material needed to memorize.

7. I need written explanations for the exercises I do.

8. Extraneous noise during classes annoys me.

9. I am used to looking at people to understand what they are talking about.

10. I work better in a room with posters, illustrations and diagrams on the walls.

11. I remember better if I speak information out loud.

12. I learn material better by listening to lectures and audio recordings than by reading.

13. I need verbal instructions for the exercises.

14. Listening helps me think.

15. I love to study and think while listening to music.

16. I easily understand what is said, even if I don’t see the speaker.

17. I usually don’t remember the people themselves, but I remember what they said.

18. I have a good memory for a joke I heard once.

20. When I turn on the TV, I listen more than I watch.

21. I start the exercise without paying attention to the explanations.

22. I need frequent breaks during classes or work.

23. I move my lips when I read to myself.

24. I don’t like to study while sitting at a desk and, if possible, I avoid it.

25. I get nervous when I don’t move for a long time.

26. I think better if I am in motion, for example I walk.

27. Movable objects promote memorization.

28. I like to build, model, conduct experiments.

29. I love physical activity.

30. I enjoy collecting coins and stamps.

Processing the results:

summarize your “+” marks from points 1 to 10 of the questionnaire, write down the result on a piece of paper (relates to visual perception);

summarize your “+” marks from the 11th to the 20th point, write down the result (relates to auditory perception);

summarize your “+” marks from the 21st to the 30th points, write down the result (relates to tactile perception).

Circle the highest result.

If the difference between this indicator and each of the other two is greater than 2, then the result obtained is an indicator of your leading channel of information perception.

Take into account:

If your leading channel for perceiving information is visual, then you can rely on your visual memory and assimilate

educational material using visual means (videos, books, drawings, diagrams, etc.);

If your leading channel for perceiving information is auditory, then in the learning process use conversational and auditory activity, take part in discussions, seminars, listen to lectures;

If your leading channel for perceiving information is tactile, then try to contact the objects being studied, use practical models in the learning process, and conduct experiments.

If the difference between the two values is less than 2, circle both results.

This means that you have well-developed two channels of information perception and you can use both of them effectively in the learning process.

If the difference between the three indicators is no more than 2, circle all three results.

This means that your three channels of information perception are well developed and you can effectively use all methods and recommendations in the learning process.

Draw conclusions.

This is textbook material

Question No. 2.2. Properties and individual characteristics of perception

Basic properties of perception

The surrounding reality is perceived not by one or another sense organ, but by a person of a certain gender and age, with his own interests, views, personality orientation, life experience, etc. The eye, ear, hand and other sense organs only provide the process of perception. Therefore, perception depends on the mental characteristics of the individual.

Selectivity of perception. Of the huge number of diverse influences, we highlight only a few with great clarity and awareness. What is in the center of a person’s attention during perception is called object (subject) of perception, and everything else - background. In other words, something is the main thing in perception for a person at the moment, and something is secondary.

The subject and the background are dynamic, they can change places - what was the object of perception can become the background of perception for some time.

Perception is always selective and depends on apperception.

Apperception- this is the dependence of perception on the general content of a person’s mental life, his experience and knowledge, interests, feelings and a certain attitude towards the subject of perception. It is known that the perception of a picture, melody, or book varies from person to person. Sometimes a person perceives not what is, but what he wants. All types of perception are carried out by a specific, living person. By perceiving objects, a person expresses a certain attitude towards them.

So, junior schoolchildren They notice brightly colored objects better, moving objects against the background of stationary ones. They perceive the drawing that the teacher makes on the board in front of them more fully and better than the drawing shown in finished form. Everything included in labor training, the play activity of the child himself and thereby causes his activity and increased interest, is perceived more fully. A variety of practical activities and exercises lead to a deeper perception, and therefore to knowledge of objects and phenomena.

Illusions of perception. Sometimes our senses let us down, as if deceiving us. Such “deceptions” of the senses are called illusions. Therefore, a magician, whose secret of work lies not only in sleight of hand, but also in the ability to “deceive” the eyes of the audience, is called an illusionist.

Vision is more susceptible to illusions than other senses. This is reflected in colloquial speech and in proverbs: “don’t believe your eyes”, “optical illusion”.

All people have illusions of perception. Show pictures illustrating visual illusions to any of your friends, and they will create the same illusion as you.

Artists, architects, and tailors are well aware of visual illusions. They use them in their work. For example, a tailor sews a dress from striped fabric. If he arranges the fabric so that the stripes run vertically, then the woman in this dress will appear taller. And if you “lay” the stripes horizontally, the wearer of the dress will appear shorter and thicker.

Illusions are observed not only in visual, but also in other types of perception.

Sometimes other senses deceive us. Try holding your hand very cold water, and then put it in a warm place. It will seem to you that your hand has almost fallen into boiling water.

If you eat a piece of lemon or herring and drink some tea with a little sugar, the first sip will seem very sweet.

Sometimes illusions arise under the influence of strong emotions. For example, in fear a person may mistake one thing for another (a stump in the forest for an animal or a person). Such illusions are random and individual in nature.

The truth of perception is tested by practice.

Perception is closely related to a person's past experience, his previous perceptions. In the process of perception it is very important recognition, without it there is virtually no perception. When we perceive an object, we can accurately name it or say what it reminds us of. We understand every phenomenon in the process of perception from the point of view of existing knowledge and experience. This makes it possible to incorporate new knowledge into the system of existing knowledge.

Individual characteristics of perception

People differ, firstly, in the nature of receiving information. Scientists distinguish a holistic (synthetic) type of perception, when they do not attach importance to details and do not like to go into them. This type is characterized by a focus on the essence, meaning, generalization, and not on details and particulars. The detailing (analytical) type of perception, on the contrary, is focused on details.

It is quite obvious that the most productive is a combination of both methods.

Observation and observation

Observation- this is perception, closely related to the activity of thinking - comparison, discrimination, analysis. Observation is the purposeful, systematic perception of objects and phenomena in the knowledge of which we are interested. To observe means not just to look, but to examine, not just to listen, but to listen, to listen, not just to smell, but to sniff. This is very accurately reflected in popular proverbs and sayings: “He looks, but does not see”, “He is sighted, but he is not sharp-sighted”, “My ears are blocked for this.”

Observation is always carried out with a specific cognitive purpose. It presupposes a clear understanding of the objectives of the observation and the preliminary development of a plan for its implementation. It is impossible to observe if you do not know what exactly needs to be observed and for what purpose. Clarity of purpose and objectives of observation activates an important characteristic of perception - selectivity.

Observation - this is a personality trait, the ability to observe and notice characteristic, but little noticeable features of objects, phenomena, people. It is closely related to the development of a person’s professional interests, as it is improved in the process of systematically engaging in the chosen occupation.

The ability to observe plays a huge role in a wide variety of areas of human activity.

Observation is necessary for the teacher. Without careful, constant observations, it is impossible to deeply understand the psychological characteristics of a child and outline the correct paths for his development and upbringing.

Observation as a personal professional quality develops in a teacher gradually, in the process of gaining experience in teaching and becoming familiar with psychological knowledge.

4. Distribution of attention of students and teachers during the lesson (how it was expressed and how it was organized by the teacher).

6. Dynamics of types of student attention at various stages of the lesson (involuntary, voluntary, post-voluntary).

7. Peculiarities of manifestations of attention depending on its external or internal focus when reading a book, looking at a book or map, a teacher’s story, as well as during recall of a formula, poem, reflection and in other situations.

8. Means (methods, techniques) by which students regulated their attention, organizing it in accordance with the requirements and tasks of the teacher in a specific learning situation.

At the same time, a teacher, like any specialist, who by the nature of his work communicates a lot with people, accumulates many observations without a special plan, spontaneously. This rich experience of observing a child in different situations creates the basis for what is called “pedagogical intuition” and allows, almost without thinking, to choose the only correct words that this particular student needs. However, this experience often remains unthought and unthought. It is very difficult to transfer it to another teacher, sometimes even difficult explain to yourself. To systematize and understand such spontaneous observations, special schemes are being developed. One such chart intended to be completed by the teacher is D. Stott’s “Observation Map.” It is aimed at identifying various types of behavioral disorders. This map consists of a description of different behaviors that the teacher can observe in children. The teacher is asked to assess whether or not the child exhibits a particular form of behavior. The concentration of symptoms in any one area allows us to understand the causes of the child’s emotional difficulties, behavioral disorders, etc.

Let's take one of the parts of this map as an example.

“Anxiety towards adults. Anxiety and uncertainty about whether adults are interested in him, whether they love him...

1. Performs his duties very willingly.

2. Shows an excessive desire to greet the teacher.

3. Too talkative (bothers with his chatter).

4. Very willingly brings flowers and other gifts to the teacher.

5. Very often brings and shows the teacher objects, drawings, models, etc. he has found.

6. Being overly friendly towards the teacher.

7. Tells the teacher an exaggerated amount about his family activities.

8. “Sucks up”, tries to please the teacher

9. Always finds an excuse to keep the teacher busy with his special someone.

10. Constantly needs help and control from the teacher.”

(See: Workbook school psychologist/ Ed. I.V. Dubrovina. - M., 1991. - P. 168-178).

Individual characteristics of the perception of a person by a person. Psychology

Latest

You need to know this