Engineering psychology. Object, subject and tasks of engineering psychology

Subject and basic concepts engineering psychology.

Engineering psychology– a direction that arose on the basis of the study of labor psychology and technical sciences. Engineering psychology studies issues of interaction, mutual coordination of human capabilities and modern technology within the framework of a unified “man-machine-environment” system (MHMS). The coordination of a person with technology occurs at different levels, and different disciplines study it accordingly (See Diagram)

As we see, at first man used his muscular strength to control technology. Required: physical strength, high coordination of movements, dexterity. It was important: the shape of the tools, the influence of work activity on the state of the body...

At the beginning of the twentieth century, new types of work activity appeared (driving a car, an airplane), which required taking into account not only the anthropometric and physiological qualities of a person, but also mainly his psychological qualities - reaction speed, characteristics of memory and attention, emotional attitude, etc. The change in the nature of human activity and technology led to the emergence of labor psychology. She studies the psychological characteristics of a person’s work activity and the formation of professionally important qualities in him to increase labor productivity.

Finally, the widespread introduction of automated control systems (ACS) in various industries has forced psychology to pay attention to the human operator.

Engineering psychology solves the following tasks: 1. rational organization of human activity in “man-machine” systems designed for managing and processing information;

2. appropriate distribution of functions between management and maintenance personnel and technical automation equipment;

3. optimization of information support and decision-making processes.

In solving these problems, engineering psychology is based on data from related sciences, such as personality psychology, work psychology, etc., and also closely interacts with systems engineering and engineering disciplines.

Ergonomics- (from the Greek érgon - work and nómos - law), a scientific discipline that comprehensively studies a person (a group of people) in the specific conditions of his (their) activity in modern production. Therefore, when designing new and modernizing existing equipment, it is especially important to take into account in advance and with the greatest possible completeness the capabilities and characteristics of the people who will use it.

The “man-machine-environment” system consists of:

    machines (M) - everything that is artificially created by human hands to satisfy their needs (technical devices, information support, etc.);

    human (H) - a human operator who, when interacting with a machine, performs certain control functions to achieve the goal;

    environment, which can be divided into two types - environment(OS) and social environment (SS).

    The environment is characterized by such basic parameters as microclimate, noise, vibration, illumination, dust, gas pollution, etc.

    The social environment is characterized by socio-economic and political relations in society.

A person and a machine, in their interaction, constitute a subsystem within the framework of the human-machine system, which is called the “man-machine” system - the human-machine system.

The classification of SFM is based on four groups of characteristics:

    purpose of the system;

    characteristics of the human element;

    type of machine link;

    type of interaction between system components.

According to their intended purpose, MSM are divided into:

    managers, in which the main task of a person is to control the machine;

    servicing, in which the human task is to monitor the condition of the machine;

    training - development of certain skills in a person;

    informational - searching, accumulating or obtaining the necessary information;

    research - analysis of certain phenomena.

According to the characteristics of the human link, HMS are divided into:

    monosystems, which include one person;

    polysystems, which include a whole team and a complex interacting with it technical devices.

Polysystems can be divided into parity and hierarchical (multi-level).

    In parity systems, there is no subordination or priority between team members.

    In hierarchical HMS, an organizational or priority hierarchy of human interaction with technology is established.

Activities of a human operator.

Activities of a human operator is a process of achieving the goals set for the HMS, consisting of an ordered set of actions performed by it. Peculiarities operator activity:

    A man must control everything a large number objects, which complicates the assessment of their conditions, the organization of control and management.

    A person is increasingly moving away from controlled objects and processes and cannot perceive them directly. Therefore, he communicates with images or information models that imitate them. It must constantly decode information.

    Demands are increasing for human performance and at the same time for the reliability of his work.

    From a physiological point of view, operator activity is qualitative the new kind activities. Main function operator – situation analysis and decision making.

    The degree of responsibility for the actions performed is growing.

    The usual working conditions of a person are disrupted. Decreased muscle work. Use of small muscle groups. Social isolation.

    High preparedness for emergency action is required. At the same time, processing large quantity information in a short period of time. This leads to overload and stress.

There are severaltypes operator activity:

    operator-technologist - a person directly involved in technological process;

    operator-manipulator – the main role of human activity is sensorimotor regulation (control of manipulators, trains, etc.);

    operator-observer - a classic type of operator (dispatcher transport system, radar station operator, etc.);

    operator-researcher – researchers of any profile;

    operator-manager - organizers, managers at various levels, responsible decision makers.

Based on the type of machine link, two types of characteristics can be distinguished:

      information - machines that provide information processing and problem solving spiritual plan;

      material – machines that process material media.

Based on the type of interaction between system components in the MCS, there are two types:

    informational – interaction caused by the transfer of information from machine to person;

    sensorimotor – interaction directed from a person to a machine to achieve a given goal.

  • Analysis of human tasks in control systems, distribution of functions between humans and automatic systems, including with artificial intelligence.
  • Engineering and psychological design
  • Study joint activities operators, communication processes and information interaction between them.
  • Analysis psychological structure activities of operators.
  • Study of factors influencing the efficiency, quality, accuracy, speed, reliability of operators’ actions.
  • Study of human information reception processes, study of human sensory “inputs”.
  • Study of the formation of commands to perform control actions by a person, the characteristics of speech and motor “output”.
  • Analysis of the processes of human information processing, its storage and decision-making, psychological mechanisms regulation of operators' activities.
  • Development of methods of psychodiagnostics, professional guidance and selection of camera specialists.
  • Development of methods to protect operators from emotional burnout.
  • Analysis and optimization of operator training processes.
  • Using research results for the design and operation of human-machine (human-information) systems.
  • Using research findings for virtual psychology.

The initiators of the creation of this direction were American and English psychologists A. Chapanis, McFerdan, W. Garner, D. Bronbet and others. In Russia, the first studies of engineering psychological type were carried out in the twenties of the 20th century within the framework of occupational psychology and psychotechnics.

In March 1957, at the All-Union meeting (conference) on labor psychology in Moscow, engineering psychology was defined as independent region research. In the same year, a laboratory of industrial psychology was created at the institute under the leadership of D. A. Oshanin.

The leading role in the organization and consolidation of work on engineering psychology was played by B. F. Lomov, who headed the laboratory of industrial (engineering) psychology created at Leningrad State University.

During the 1960s similar laboratories were created at Moscow State University (headed by G.P. Shchedrovitsky), and the Scientific Research Institute of Technical Aesthetics (V.F. Venda). At the Institute of Psychology of the USSR Academy of Sciences, the laboratory of engineering psychology was opened in 1973 on the initiative of B.F. Lomov and V.F. Rubakhin. Departments of occupational psychology and engineering psychology were created at the faculties of psychology of Leningrad State University (1966), KSU (1967), Moscow State University (1968)

At the Institute of Psychology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, an academic school of engineering psychology was formed under the influence of ideas and active participation V research work B. F. Lomov, V. D. Nebylitsina, V. F. Rubakhina, Yu. M. Zabrodin, K. K. Platonov, V. F. Venda, A. I. Galaktionov, as well as last years- L. G. Dikoy, V. A. Vavilova, V. A. Bodrova.



Labor psychology- a branch of psychology that examines the psychological characteristics of a person’s work activity and the patterns of development of work skills. There is an opinion that the description of this science in the broad and narrow senses should be divided. Within the framework of this approach, in a narrow sense, labor psychology is understood as “a complex of scientific disciplines about labor as a process of functioning and development of a person as a subject of labor, as an individual; is a complex of disciplines about theoretical-methodological, psychophysiological and psychological foundations haniyah of labor, about psychological characteristics specific professional activity oh professionally important qualities the individual as a subject of labor, professional crises and destructions, deformations, diseases.” Labor psychology in a broad sense is called “a complex of scientific disciplines about work as a cultural and social activity of a person, acting as its subject, its key component, its system-forming factor.” The last definition is quite capacious, but, in fact, it is not a definition of one science “work psychology”, but of a number of scientific disciplines - ergonomics, engineering psychology, sociology, economic psychology, etc., and therefore is not suitable for defining a specific discipline . If we try to generalize and condense all the above descriptions of this science, we can give the following definition: “Work psychology is a field of psychology that studies psychological processes, states and patterns of work of the human psyche associated with work activity"

The main tasks of occupational psychology modern stage are directly related to the social tasks of improving industrial relations and improving the quality of work, improving living conditions, eliminating emergency situations, democratization and the formation of the psychological type of the employee, an appropriate work culture. The following main areas of research are highlighted: - ways to increase labor productivity - rationalization of work and rest, - formation of professional motivation - assessment of professional suitability - optimization of relationships in labor collectives. - psychological preparation of young people for work - problems and crises of professional development - professional stress and conflicts - psychology of labor safety

The following research methods are used in occupational psychology: - natural and laboratory experiment, - observation, - interview, - questionnaire, - psychological tests, - simulators, - method of functional tests and other methods.

Pedagogical psychology is a branch of psychology that studies the patterns of human development in conditions of training and education. It is closely related to pedagogy, child and differential psychology, and psychophysiology.

The structure of educational psychology consists of three sections:

  • psychology of learning;
  • psychology of education;
  • teacher psychology.

Subject of educational psychology- development cognitive activity in conditions of systematic training. Thus, it is revealed psychological essence educational process. Research in this area is aimed at identifying:

  • relationships between external and internal factors that determine differences in cognitive activity under different conditions didactic systems;
  • the relationship between the motivational and intellectual plans of learning;
  • opportunities to manage the processes of learning and development of the child;
  • psychological and pedagogical criteria for the effectiveness of training, etc.

Subject of educational psychology- personality development in conditions purposeful organization activities of the child, children's group. Educational psychology studies the laws of the learning process moral standards and principles, formation of worldview, beliefs, etc. in the conditions of educational and educational activities at school.
Research in this area is aimed at studying:

  • the content of the motivational sphere of the student’s personality, its orientation, value orientation, moral attitudes;
  • differences in the self-awareness of students brought up in different conditions;
  • the structure of children's and youth groups and their role in the formation of personality;
  • conditions and consequences of mental deprivation

Subject of teacher psychology - psychological aspects formation of professional pedagogical activity, as well as those personality traits that contribute to or hinder the success of this activity. The most important tasks of this section of educational psychology are:

  • definition creative potential the teacher and the possibilities for him to overcome pedagogical stereotypes;
  • studying the emotional stability of a teacher;
  • identifying positive features of the individual communication style of teacher and student and a number of others

The general task of educational psychology is to identify, study and describe the psychological characteristics and patterns of intellectual and personal development of a person in the conditions of educational activities, educational process. Accordingly, the tasks of educational psychology are (see animation):

  • disclosure of the mechanisms and patterns of teaching and educational influence on the intellectual and personal development of the student;
  • determination of mechanisms and patterns of student’s mastering sociocultural experience (socialization), its structuring, preservation (strengthening) in the student’s individual consciousness and use in different situations;
  • determining the connection between the level of intellectual and personal development of the student and the forms, methods of teaching and educational influence (cooperation, active forms training, etc.);
  • determination of organizational and management features educational activities students and the impact of these processes on intellectual, personal development and educational and cognitive activity;
  • studying the psychological foundations of a teacher’s activity;
  • determination of factors, mechanisms, patterns of developmental education, in particular the development of scientific and theoretical thinking;
  • determination of patterns, conditions, criteria for the assimilation of knowledge, formation on their basis of the operational composition of activities in the process of solving various problems;
  • development of psychological foundations for further improvement of the educational process at all levels of the educational system, etc.

Psychophysiology- a science that studies neurophysiological mechanisms mental processes, states and behavior. Within the framework of psychophysiology, the psychophysiological problem of the relationship between the brain and psyche is also solved.

The scientific direction is divided into two stages.

    First stage associated with the emergence new area knowledge and active accumulation practical research(20-60s of the 20th century). This was due to the development of technology and experiments that prepared the basis for the emergence of engineering psychology as a science. The founders of engineering psychology as a new scientific direction were American and English psychologists: A. Chapanis, McFerdan, W. Garner, D. Bronbet. In Russia, the first research of an engineering-psychological nature was the developments carried out in the twenties of the 20th century in the field of occupational psychology and psychotechnics. In October 1959 A laboratory of industrial psychology was organized at Leningrad State University, where B. Lomov was the director. In 1963, his monograph “Man and Technology” was published. Exactly this work became that scientific work, which served as an impetus for conducting large-scale research on the main problems of engineering psychology. This stage is characterized by a “machine-centric” approach, when empirical material was actively accumulated. It was these developments that later became the basis for various methodological recommendations, engineering and psychological standards, all kinds of textbooks.

    Second phase associated with the theoretical formulation of engineering psychology (60-90s of the 20th century). The “anthropocentric” approach becomes predominant, according to which a person is considered as a subject, and technology is a means of labor. This stage is characterized by a transition from impersonal to individual person, in whose hands there is a control panel.

    Third stage characterized by systematic research in engineering psychology (90s of the 20th century - present). A person is considered not just as a link in the “man-machine” system; the emphasis is shifted to the design of human activity in “man-technology” systems.

Goals and objectives of engineering psychology

Definition 1

Engineering psychology is a scientific discipline that studies the objective laws of the processes of information interaction between man and technology with their further use in the design, creation and operation of the “Man-machine” system.

The main goal of the direction is to ensure effective information interaction between the human operator and technical means. The objectives of the discipline are divided into two groups: general theoretical and specific practical.

The first group includes the following points:

  1. Adaptation of technology to humans.
  2. Human adaptation to technology.
  3. Rational distribution of functions between man and technology.

The second group includes the following tasks:

  1. Diagnostic: analysis of the main components of the operator’s activity; knowledge of the essence of information transformation by a human operator; studying the influence of psychological factors on the effectiveness of human-machine systems.
  2. Operational: creating principles for the functioning of operator workplaces; study of the operator’s functional states; development of fundamentals for professional training of operators; engineering-psychological design and evaluation of human-machine systems.

Engineering psychology and other sciences

As a new field, engineering psychology emphasized psychological content and practical orientation. The main difference between the scientific discipline was its creation on the border of the humanities and technical sphere knowledge. To date, the interaction of engineering psychology with cybernetics, communication theory, theory automatic control and regulation, technical aesthetics. In addition, the basis for solving problems of engineering psychology became general and experimental psychology, hygiene and occupational psychology, social Psychology, technical aesthetics.

Engineering psychology is the basis of such a field of science as ergonomics. The subject of ergonomics is related to human labor activity when interacting with technical systems. Another science that closely interacts with engineering psychology is occupational psychology. Its main task is to focus on psychological characteristics human work, while the tasks of engineering psychology include adapting technology to human capabilities.

Engineering psychology – a scientific discipline that studies the objective laws of the processes of information interaction between man and technology with the aim of using them in the practice of designing, creating and operating the “Man-Machine” (HMC) system.

The goal of engineering psychology is to ensure effective information interaction between a human operator and a technical device, increasing labor productivity through the humanization of equipment and technology.

The main task of engineering psychology is to develop optimal methods and means of resolving contradictions between technological processes and technology, on the one hand, and human labor activity, on the other, arising in the process of production development.

Ergonomics is closely related to engineering psychology. Ergonomics (from the Greek “ergon” - work and “nomos” - law, the term was introduced in England in 1949) - the science of adapting tools and working conditions to humans. She studies the functional capabilities and characteristics of a person in labor processes in order to create optimal conditions, in which work becomes highly productive and efficient, as well as safe.

Ergonomics – a field of knowledge that comprehensively studies human labor activity in the “Man - Technology - Environment” (CHTS) system in order to ensure its efficiency, safety and comfort.

The term “human operator” in ergonomics and engineering psychology is understood as a person carrying out labor activity, the basis of which is interaction with the object of work, the machine and the external environment (for ergonomics) through an information model and controls (engineering psychology) .

Block diagram of the “Man-machine” system

Let's look at how such a system works. The information display means (ID) of the RES display not the state of the control object itself, but an image simulating it, called information model , which in the operator’s head is converted into operational image or conceptual model (conception – representation, concept).

Information model – this is a display of an object organized in accordance with a certain system of rules, external environment and ways to influence them. Based on the perception of the information model, an image of the state of the controlled object is formed in the operator’s mind.

At the “entrance” of a person there are receptors that convert the energy of external influences into nerve impulses. In the central nervous system the received signals are compared with some reference signals stored in memory, and a control decision is made, which is made on the basis of certain skills.

Effectors perform the reverse conversion of pulse energy into motion energy and, through the control elements of the RES, control the control object or the RES itself, the state of which is displayed on the IDS. This is how one control cycle occurs. For the normal functioning of the SMS, it is necessary to ensure optimal coordination of the two sections.

The peculiarity of this system is that the “input” and “output” of a person cannot be changed. Consequently, to ensure coordination when designing the RES, only the “input” or “output” of the RES can be changed. Therefore, the requirements for the design of RES (SMS) are formulated on the basis of knowledge of the characteristics of the “input” and “output” of a person, that is, knowledge of the design features of receptors and effectors, their characteristics and the characteristics of human perception of information.

Stages of receiving information

The operator's control activities begin with receiving information about the control object. The main mental processes involved in reception information are sensation, perception, idea And thinking.

Reception of information by a human operator – formation of a perceptual image. It includes several stages: detection, discrimination And identification

Detection – the stage of perception at which the observer distinguishes an object from the background, but cannot yet judge its shape and characteristics.

Discrimination – the stage of perception at which the observer is able to separately perceive two objects located nearby (or two states of one object) and highlight the details of the objects.

Identification – the stage of perception at which the observer identifies the essential features of an object and assigns it to a certain class.

Perception, as the basis for the process of receiving information by the operator, is characterized by such properties as integrity, meaningfulness, selectivity And constancy.

Integrity perception arises as a result of the analysis and synthesis of complex stimuli during the operator’s activity.

Meaningfulness consists in the fact that the perceived object belongs to a certain category by the operator.

Selectivity consists in preferentially highlighting some objects over others. Selectivity of perception is an expression of a certain attitude of the operator to the influence of objects and phenomena of the external environment on him.

Stages of operator activity in the control system

The activities of the operator in the “Man-machine” system can be of a very diverse nature. Despite this, in general it can be presented in the form of four main stages: reception information, information processing, decision making And implementation of the decision

Receiving information. At this stage, the perception of incoming information about control objects and those properties of the environment and the physical environment as a whole that are important for solving the problem assigned to the “Man-Machine” system is carried out. At the same time, such actions as detecting signals, selecting the most significant ones from their totality, deciphering and decoding them are carried out. As a result, the operator has a preliminary idea of ​​the state of the controlled object. Information is reduced to a form suitable for assessment and decision-making.

Data processing. At this stage, the specified and current (real) modes of operation of the control system are compared, information is analyzed and summarized, critical objects and situations are identified, and the order of information processing is determined based on previously known criteria of importance and urgency. The quality of this stage largely depends on the accepted methods of encoding information and the operator’s ability to decode it. At this stage, the operator can perform actions such as storing information, retrieving it from memory, decoding, etc.

Decision-making. The decision on the necessary actions is made on the basis of the analysis and assessment of information, as well as on the basis of other known information about the goals and conditions of the system, possible methods of action, the consequences of correct and erroneous decisions, etc. The time for making a decision significantly depends on entropy ( uncertainty) of a set of solutions.

Implementation of the decision made. At this stage, the decision taken is carried out by performing certain actions or issuing appropriate orders. Individual actions at this stage are: recoding the decision made into machine code, searching for the desired control, moving the hand to the control and manipulating it (pressing a button, turning on a toggle switch, turning a lever, etc.).

At each stage, the operator performs self-control of his own actions. This self-control can be instrumental or non-instrumental. In the first case, the operator monitors his actions using special technical means (for example, using special indicators to control the correctness of the information set). In the second case, control is carried out without the use of technical means. It is carried out by visual inspection, repetition of individual actions, etc. Carrying out any type of self-monitoring helps to increase the reliability of the operator’s work.

Factors influencing the execution of operator activity stages

The quality of information reception depends on the type and number of indicators, the organization of the information field, the psychophysical characteristics of the information presented (the size of the images, their lighting characteristics, color tone and color contrast).

Information processing is influenced by factors such as the method of encoding information, the volume of its display, the dynamics of information change, its compliance with the operator’s memory and thinking capabilities.

The effectiveness of decision-making is determined by the following factors: the type of problem being solved, the number and complexity of the logical conditions being tested, the complexity of the algorithm and the number of possible solution options, and the ability to control the solution.

The implementation of the decision made depends on the number of controls, their type and method of placement, as well as on large group characteristics that determine the degree of convenience of working with individual controls (size, shape, resistance force, etc.).

The first two stages together are sometimes called obtaining information, the last two stages – implementing information.

Types of operator work

Operator-technologist. The process operator is directly involved in the technological process. It operates primarily in immediate service mode. Control actions predominate in his activities. The execution of actions is usually regulated by instructions, which, as a rule, contain an almost complete set of situations and solutions. This type includes operators of technological processes, automatic lines, operators for receiving and processing information, etc.

Operator-observer(controller). The observer operator is classic type operator, with the study of whose activities engineering psychology began. Information and conceptual models, as well as decision-making processes, are important for the activities of such an operator. The control actions of the operator-observer (compared to the operator-technologist) are somewhat simplified. The observer operator can work in deferred maintenance mode. This type of activity is widespread for systems operating in real time (radar operators, dispatchers at various types transport, etc.).

Operator-researcher. The operator-researcher uses to a much greater extent the apparatus of conceptual thinking and experience embedded in the conceptual model. Controls play an even smaller role for him, and the “weight” of information models, on the contrary, increases significantly. Such operators include users of computer systems, decryptors of various objects (images), etc.

Operator-supervisor. The operator-manager, in principle, differs little from the previous type, but for him the mechanisms of intellectual activity play a dominant role. Such operators include organizers, managers at various levels, people who make responsible decisions in human-machine systems and have intuition, knowledge and experience.

Operator-manipulator. For the activity of a manipulator operator, sensorimotor coordination (for example, continuous tracking of a moving object) and motor (motor) skills are of great importance. Although the mechanisms of motor activity are of primary importance for him, the activity also uses the apparatus of conceptual and imaginative thinking. The functions of the operator-manipulator include the control of robots, manipulators, and machines that enhance human muscle energy (machines, excavators, vehicles, etc.).

Types of analyzers

The physiological basis for the formation of a perceptual image is the work of analyzers. Analyzers are nerve devices through which a person analyzes stimuli. Any analyzer consists of three main parts: receptor, nerve pathways And center in the bark of largehemispheres brain

The main function of the receptor is to convert the energy of an active stimulus into a nervous process. The receptor input is adapted to receive signals of a certain modality (type) - light, sound, etc. However, its output sends signals that are the same in nature for any input of the nervous system. This allows us to consider receptors as information encoding devices.

Depending on the modality of the incoming signal, 11 types of analyzers are distinguished:

– visual;

– auditory;

– tactile;

– painful;

-temperature;

– olfactory;

– taste;

Internal:

– pressure;

– kinesthetic;

– vestibular;

– special (located in internal organs and body cavities).

The main characteristics of any analyzer are rapids – absolute (top and bottom), differential And operational . The concept of each of these thresholds can be introduced in relation to the energy (intensity), spatial (size) and temporal (duration of exposure) characteristics of the signal.

The minimum amount of stimulus that causes a barely noticeable sensation is called lower absolute threshold of feelings vigor , and the maximum permissible value is upper absolute sensitivity threshold (this concept is introduced in relation only to energy characteristics). Signals whose magnitude is less than the lower threshold are not perceived by humans. An increase in signal intensity above the upper threshold causes a painful sensation in a person (extra-loud sound, blinding brightness, etc.). The interval between the lower and upper thresholds is called sensitivity range analyzer.

The most important properties of analyzers, which are of great importance for the operator’s activities, are adaptability And selectivity .

Adaptability – this is a change in the sensitivity range of the analyzer in accordance with the change in the intensity of the stimulus. During the adaptation process, both the energy, temporal and spatial thresholds of the analyzers change. Adaptation is characterized by the magnitude of the change in sensitivity and the time during which it occurs. These indicators vary for different analyzers. For example, the tactile analyzer adapts most quickly, the visual analyzer adapts relatively slowly, but its sensitivity range is very large.

Selectivity The analyzer lies in its ability to single out only certain ones from the many stimuli acting on a person at any given time, depending on the conditions. Selectivity is a condition for the formation of adequate sensations and ensures high noise immunity of analyzers. Selectivity can be amplitude, spatial, temporal and probabilistic. The latter means duplication of signals transmitted to the brain center.

The considered characteristics and design of the analyzers allow us to formulate general requirements for stimulus signals to telephone numbers addressed to the operator:

– the intensity of the signals must correspond to the average values ​​of the sensitivity range of the analyzers, which provides the most optimal conditions for receiving and processing information;

– in order for the operator to monitor changes in signals and compare them with each other in terms of intensity, duration, spatial position, it is necessary to ensure a difference between the signals that exceeds the operational discrimination threshold;

– differences between signals should not significantly exceed the operational threshold, since large differences cause fatigue;

– the most important indicators should be located in those areas of the sensor field of the analyzer that correspond to the areas of the receptor surface with the greatest sensitivity;

– when designing indicator devices, it is necessary to correctly select the type of signal, and therefore the modality of the analyzer (visual, auditory, tactile, etc.).

General characteristics of the visual analyzer

The stimulus of the visual analyzer is light energy, and the receptor is the eye. Vision allows us to perceive the shape, color, brightness and movement of objects. The human operator receives about 90% of all information through a visual analyzer.

The human eye works on the principle of a photographic camera, in which the lens serves as the lens. The possibility of visual perception is determined by the energy, information, spatial and temporal characteristics of the signals received by the operator. The combination of these characteristics and their numerical values ​​determine the visibility of the object (signal) to the eye. In accordance with the above-mentioned signal characteristics, four groups of characteristics of the visual analyzer can be distinguished:

– energy;

– informational;

– spatial;

– temporary.

The energy characteristics of the visual analyzer are determined by the power (intensity) of light signals perceived by the eye. These include: brightness, glare, adaptive brightness, contrast, spectral sensitivity.

Brightness. The luminous flux emitted by a source or reflected by a surface, entering the eye of the observer, causes a visual sensation. It will be stronger, the greater the density of the light flux emitted or reflected towards the eye. Consequently, the light source or illuminated object will be better visible, the greater the intensity of light emitted by each surface element in the direction of the eye.

Glare. In some cases, signals of different intensities may enter the operator’s field of view. At the same time, signals with greater brightness can cause an undesirable eye condition - blindness. The glare brightness is determined by the adapting brightness and the size of the luminous one. To create optimal conditions for visual perception, it is necessary not only to ensure the required brightness and contrast of signals, but also the uniform distribution of brightness in the field of view.

Adaptive brightness. Since objects with different brightness can fall into the operator’s field of vision, the concept of adaptive brightness is also introduced in engineering psychology. By it we mean the brightness to which it is adapted (tuned) in this moment time visual analyzer. Approximately, we can assume that for images with direct contrast (an object is darker than the background), the adapting brightness is equal to the brightness of the background, and for images with reverse contrast (an object is brighter than the background), it is equal to the brightness of the object.

Contrast. The visibility of objects is also determined by their contrast in relation to the background. There are two types of contrast: direct contrast (subject darker than background) and reverse contrast (the object is brighter than the background).

Working with direct contrast is more favorable than working with reverse contrast.

Spectral sensitivity. The human eye perceives electromagnetic waves in the range of 380–760 nm. However, the sensitivity of the eye to waves of different lengths is not the same. The eyes are most sensitive to waves in the middle of the visible light spectrum (500–600 nm).

It should be noted that the influence of color in the operator’s activities is very great. Firstly, it can be used as one of the methods of encoding information, and secondly, for the aesthetic design of rooms and control panels from the point of view of improving visual perception.

Basic information characteristics the visual analyzer is throughput , that is, the amount of information that the analyzer is capable of receiving per unit of time.

Spatial characteristics visual analyzer are determined by the size of objects perceived by the eye and their location in space. These include: visual acuity, field of view, volume of visual perception.

Visual acuity. Visual acuity is the ability of the eye to distinguish small details of objects. It is determined by the reciprocal of the minimum angular size of an object in minutes at which it is visible to the eye. A visual angle equal to 1΄ corresponds to a unit of visual acuity. Visual acuity depends on the level of illumination, the distance to the object in question, its position relative to the observer and the age of the observer.

line of sight. Conventionally, the entire field of view can be divided into three zones: central vision (4–10°), where the clearest distinction of details is possible; clear visions (30–35°), where with a stationary eye you can identify an object without distinguishing small details; peripheral vision (75–90°), where objects are detected but not identified. The peripheral vision zone plays an important role in orientation in the external environment. Objects located in this zone can be easily and quickly moved into the zone of clear vision using adjustment movements (jumps) of the eyes and head

Volumeseeseloquent perception. The volume of visual perception is determined by the number of objects that a person can grasp and remember during one visual fixation. When unrelated objects are presented, the volume of visual perception is 4–8 elements. It should be noted that the volume of reproduced material is determined not so much by the volume of perception as by the volume of memory. A significantly larger number of objects can be reflected in the visual image, but they cannot be reproduced due to limited memory capacity. Therefore, it is practically important to take into account not so much the volume of perception as the volume of memory. For normal operation the operator must ensure that no more than 6±2 elements fall into the central field of view, limited by an angle of 4–10°

Timing characteristics visual analyzer are determined by the time required for the appearance of a visual sensation under certain operating conditions of the operator. These include: latent (hidden) period, duration of inertia of sensation, critical flicker frequency, adaptation time, time information search.

Latent period is the period of time from the moment the signal is given to the moment the sensation occurs. This time depends on the intensity of the signal (the stronger the stimulus, the shorter the reaction to it), its angular dimensions, the significance of the signal (the reaction to a signal that is significant for the operator is shorter than to signals that are not significant to the operator), the complexity of the operator’s work (the harder choice the desired signal among the others, the greater the reaction to it), age and other individual characteristics of the person. On average, for most people, the latency period of the visual reaction lies in the range of 160–240 ms.

Duration of inertia Feel is the period of time from the moment the signal ceases to act until the moment of complete absence of sensation. For most people, the duration of the sensation's inertia is 10–120 ms.

The considered features of the operation of the visual analyzer should be taken into account when organizing the operator’s activities. First of all, the duration of the signal should not be less than the latent period. Otherwise, the perceived contrast and intensity of the signal will be as many times less than the actual values ​​as the time of the signal is less than the latent period.

However, this is not yet enough to correctly identify the signal. For identification it is necessary Extra time, the so-called “clarification period”, which usually cannot be less than 0.1 s. With difficult discrimination (complexity of signs), the identification process becomes even slower, amounting to more than 0.2 s for signs of average complexity, and more than 0.6 s for signs of increased complexity.

If there is a need for the operator to react sequentially to discretely appearing signals, then the period of their repetition should be no less than the time of preservation of the sensation, equal to 0.2–0.5 s. Otherwise, the accuracy and speed of response will slow down, since when a new signal arrives, the image of the previous signal will still remain in the operator’s visual system.

Critical flicker frequency. The critical frequency of flashes is the minimum frequency of flashes at which their fused perception occurs. This frequency depends on the brightness, size and configuration of the signs

Adaptation time. During the adaptation process, the sensitivity of the visual analyzer changes significantly (up to 10-12 times). There are two types of adaptation: dark(during the transition from light to dark) and light(during the transition from darkness to light). Adaptation time depends on its type and amounts to tens of minutes for dark adaptation

Information search time. Eye movements play a major role in the process of visual perception. They are divided into search engines (installation) and Gnostic (cognitive).

By using search engines movements a search for a given object is carried out, setting the eye to its original position and adjusting this position. The duration of search movements is determined by the angle at which the gaze moves.

TO Gnostic movements These include movements involved in examining an object, identifying it and distinguishing the details of an object. The eye receives the main information during fixation, that is, during a relatively stationary position of the eye, when the gaze is fixed intently on the object.

Subject and tasks of engineering psychology (26)

§ 1. DEFINITION OF ENGINEERING PSYCHOLOGY

Engineering psychology is a science that studies “man - technology” systems 1 in order to achieve their high efficiency and develops psychological foundations:

Design of equipment and organization of process control;

Selection of people who have the necessary level of individual psychological professional qualities to work with certain equipment;

Professional training of people who use complex technical devices in their work activities.

Engineering psychology as a science has a dual character. On the one hand, this is an independent psychological discipline that studies human beings. the entirety of mental manifestations in the labor process. On the other hand, in engineering psychology there is a pronounced technical, engineering aspect relating to the design of equipment. This is due to the peculiarity of the most dual in nature object of study - the “man - technology” systems.

This duality of the object of research in engineering psychology gives rise to a number of specific methodological features. In addition, it should be borne in mind that any “man - technology” system is a kind of microelement of the macrosystem, which is played by the system of productive forces. Therefore, in the “man - technology” systems, a number of general patterns of development of productive forces appear, which are determined by the presence in them of material (primarily technical) and subjective (human) principles. One of these patterns concerns the determining aspects of social labor productivity. The productivity of social labor at each level of development of the productive forces is determined, firstly, by the perfection of technology, and secondly, by the accumulated production experience of people and their work skills. All this is reflected in the effectiveness of human-technology systems. The effectiveness of each such system will be determined by the performance and reliability of the equipment, the preparedness of the person, and the coordination of the performance characteristics of the person and the equipment.

Another general pattern is related to the fact that productive forces exist in unity with production relations. The socialist mode of production predetermines labor as the primary vital need of man, the basis of his all-round development. The capitalist mode of production inevitably gives rise to the alienation of labor, its dehumanization, which destroys the individual. If we consider the “man - technology” system from these positions, we can conclude that the conditions of socialism make qualitatively new demands on technology. Although technical policy both under capitalism and under socialism is aimed at creating productive and reliable technical devices, under socialism technology must not only ensure a highly efficient production process, but also serve the development and improvement of man, expanding his knowledge, and cultivating a creative attitude towards labor.

Solving issues of coordination between man and technology as elements of a single system, engineering psychology substantiates and formulates requirements and recommendations for the design of equipment, for the organization of technological process control, for the selection and training of specialists servicing equipment. These requirements are joined by the requirements of other psychological disciplines, as well as physiology, hygiene, anatomy, anthropometry, and biomechanics.

Engineering psychology widely interacts with such disciplines as cybernetics, systems engineering and general systems theory, communication theory, automatic control and regulation theory, reliability theory, technical aesthetics and artistic design, etc.

Engineering psychology also forms the core of a vast field of scientific knowledge called ergonomics 2 .

The boundaries of this area are outlined mainly by interdisciplinary connections of engineering psychology. Ergonomics usually considers the “man - technology - environment” system, thus strengthening, first of all, the physiological and hygienic aspect of research and recommendations. Without denying the legitimacy of this concept of the system under study, we only note that the concept of the “man - technology” system used in engineering psychology is based on the position that any system operates under environmental conditions that can have one or another effect on the system. Taking into account environmental factors has always been mandatory in engineering and psychological research and practical development of “man-machine” systems.

It should be noted that engineering and psychological studies of human labor activity, activities associated with new and cutting-edge technology, are of high importance in the general sense of human cognition. Labor activity is characterized by the establishment of an endless variety of relationships with the surrounding physical, biological and social environments. It is in work activity that all the individual psychological characteristics of a person as an individual, as a subject of activity, are accumulated and most clearly manifested. The results of studies of human behavior in automated systems, in addition to the obvious applied significance, are also important for the general system of human knowledge.

§2. GOAL AND STRATEGY OF ENGINEERING PSYCHOLOGY

The entire complex of theoretical and practical engineering-psychological research has main goal, as mentioned above, ensuring high efficiency of man-machine systems. The effectiveness of any system is determined by its performance and reliability under such other equal conditions as, for example, the quality of the product (result), durability, energy consumption, etc. It is clear that the effective operation of man-machine systems requires highly productive and reliable equipment; further, the design of equipment and the organization of the production process must allow a person to realize all technical capabilities. And, finally, a person must be capable of realizing these opportunities, achieving high labor productivity and ensuring the implementation of production operations.

Achieving the main goal of engineering psychology is carried out, firstly, by improving the technological characteristics of the labor process, and secondly, due to the characteristics of the labor process and working conditions that stimulate a person’s labor activity and, ultimately, his attitude towards work.

Improving the technological characteristics of the labor process means the following:

Minimizing the time required to complete individual actions and operations in labor process;

Elimination of gross errors such as blunders in work activity;

Minimizing the likelihood of errors that negatively affect the progress of the technological process, the quality of the product (result) or negatively affect the condition of equipment or people;

Maintaining high (specified) human performance for a long (specified) time by minimizing energy consumption (mental and physical stress) in the labor process 3.

By improving the characteristics of the labor process that stimulate human labor activity, we mean, first of all, the following:

Reliability of technical devices;

Rational design of equipment;

Compliance of the complexity of the technology with the level of human preparedness;

Perfect aesthetic appearance of technical devices and production premises;

Absence of harmful and interfering external factors.

Of course, human labor activity is stimulated not only by improving the characteristics of the labor process. A significant role is played here by social conditions that determine a person’s entire attitude to work. However, one cannot underestimate the role of the characteristics of the labor process in shaping a person’s personality and in creating a high level of motivation for this type of work activity. The conditions of a socialist society impose, as indicated above, qualitatively new and, in principle, more stringent demands on technology, on it. development and improvement, since “automation and comprehensive mechanization serve as the material basis for the gradual development of socialist labor into communist labor” (CPSU Program. M., 1961, p. 67).

§3. TASKS OF ENGINEERING PSYCHOLOGY

Theoretical problems engineering psychology are associated with the study of man as a subject of activity, with the study of the informational essence of all forms of mental reflection, mental regulation and mental (psychophysiological) states in the process of work activity and in the preparatory period, when professional selection, education, training are carried out, as well as with the disclosure of basic patterns human interaction with people and technology in human-technology systems 4. In engineering and psychological research, as a rule, much attention is paid to finding out what mental and physiological processes and how they are implemented when processing information by a person operating a machine. The study of human information systems, patterns of encoding external signals, the formation of a mental image and its regulatory function is one of the main aspects of engineering psychology.

Practical problems Engineering psychology concerns the coordination of man and technology as elements of a single system. Coordination is understood, firstly, as the maximum adaptation of technology to a person (according to design and technological process parameters); secondly, the maximum adaptation of a person to technology (in terms of professional suitability and professional preparedness); thirdly, the rational distribution of functions between humans and automatic devices in human-technology systems.

Adaptation of technology to humans should be carried out through a series of consistent, targeted engineering and psychological developments at all stages of design. In general, they constitute the essence of the engineering and psychological support for the design of automated control systems. Engineering and psychological support for system design is at the same time the design of human activity. During the period of operation of technology, its adaptation to humans is very limited and becomes possible only with modernization 5 .

The adaptation of technology to a person affects the structural and functional aspects of their interaction.

Structural adaptation is associated with the organization of the sensorimotor field in work areas, taking into account the working position of sitting or standing. The basis for structural adaptation is the following data:

The size and shape of the human body and its individual parts;

Limits and nature of movements in the articular system;

Strength characteristics of the muscular system;

Line of sight;

Analyzer sensitivity.

In accordance with the specified data, the following technical parameters are determined:

Dimensions and shape of the control panel and chair;

Dimensions and shape of control panels;

Dimensions and shape of controls (manipulators, pedals);

Volume, direction and nature of movements of controls;

Control resistance;

Dimensions and shape of instrument panels;

Measurements of elements of indicating parts of devices;

Signal strength (visual or auditory).

The functional adaptation of technology to a person is associated with the peculiarities of the activity of the human information system. The initial data for solving issues of functional adaptation are:

Volume and time of perception;

RAM capacity and duration of information storage;

Structural-temporal characteristics of thinking;

Features of attention;

Features of performances;

Limits of regulation of voluntary movements;

Features of movement coordination;

Peculiarities of interaction between analyzers.

In accordance with this, when developing technology, the following parameters are determined:

Number of signals and frequency of their arrival;

Duration of signal existence;

Signs of the attractive effect of signals;

Mnemonic signs of signals;

Signs of reflection in the signal of the essential characteristics of the object - the source of information;

The relationship between changes in indicator elements and movements of controls;

Correspondence of signal characteristics to a person’s ideas about the real situation, about the object;

Placement of indicators and controls in accordance with their significance and order of use;

Completeness of the information representation of the object. An important issue in coordinating the characteristics of man and technology, as mentioned above, is the adaptation of man to technology. It includes vocational guidance, vocational selection and vocational training.

Based on the needs for a certain professional activity, the requirements imposed by a particular profession on a person, and the qualities that a person must have to successfully perform this activity, vocational guidance. Its goal is to ensure the optimal distribution of people in various professions, which is achieved, firstly, by professional propaganda and professional education aimed at developing knowledge about the profession necessary for an informed choice, sustainable motivation and methods of self-training and development of professionally important qualities; secondly, career counseling, which involves a preliminary psychological (and usually medical) examination followed by a recommendation regarding the choice of profession.

Professional selection(vocational selection) aims to determine the suitability of people for training and subsequent professional activities. Vocational selection is carried out on the basis of an assessment of various psychological and other (medical, social) indicators obtained as a result of examination, study of documents, interviews, observation of behavior, competitive exams, etc. Of the psychological indicators, the most frequently assessed are indicators of attention, thinking, memory, voluntary reactions, intellectual abilities, anxiety, emotional stability, determination, discipline, honesty, sociability, ideological conviction, integrity, etc.

As a result of professional selection for training in professional activities (taking into account forecasts successful work after training), first of all, people who have a high level of individual psychological qualities necessary in this professional activity should be recommended. Further, all persons who have obvious contraindications to this activity or such a low level of initial training that does not allow them to hope for successful training within the given time frame should be excluded. During the training process, the results of professional selection are clarified (by excluding persons whose conclusion about their professional suitability turned out to be erroneous).

Professional training is one of the essential aspects of human adaptation to technology. This is primarily vocational training aimed at acquiring knowledge, skills and abilities. Learning is initially carried out primarily through training; Moreover, the initial stage of training can only be associated with the development of professionally important qualities (attention, speed of action, etc.).

The coordination of man and technology as elements of a single system is associated with the need to resolve issues of distribution of functions between man and machine (automatic machine). When solving these issues, it is established which functions are best left to a person, and which should be performed by automatic devices. Consequently, both human labor activity in its form and content, and the automation policy in relation to various types of technical systems will significantly depend on the distribution of functions. The distribution of functions between a person and an automaton is usually carried out according to the principle of preferential capabilities.

Stability of performing monotonous actions;

Speed ​​of performing computational operations, calculating numerous options in order to find the best one according to given criteria;

Large memory capacity and quick retrieval of necessary data;

Speed ​​and accuracy of classification of relatively simple signals at low levels of interference;

The use of forms of energy to transmit information to which human receptors do not have specific sensitivity (for example, electromagnetic oscillations in the radio wave range);

Performing operations strictly according to specified programs and algorithms;

Insensitivity to the influence of the social environment;

Relative simplicity of creating protective (from the external environment) devices.

The main advantages of a person can be considered:

The ability to detect and identify signals in conditions high levels noise, in the presence of special masking measures, etc.;

The ability to make decisions based on generalization of data and knowledge related to various fields of science, technology, and production;

The ability to develop an individual style of activity as an effective adaptation measure;

The ability to find new solutions, new ways of performing work (technological) operations;

The ability to receive information through various sensory channels, easily move from one modality of signals to another;

Ability to accumulate information and use accumulated experience to improve ways of working;

The ability to use various indicators and controls to interact with technical devices;

The ability to increase interest in work due to the presence of a creative, search component in the labor process;

Ability to remain ready to act in unexpected situations;

The ability to find new ways in unexpected (emergency) situations.

Of course, a person can maintain a relatively high and stable level of performance only for a limited time. During work, a person can be distracted, he gets tired and, therefore, the speed and accuracy of his actions can be significantly reduced. In terms of long-term stability of monotonous work, the machine is undoubtedly superior to humans; it is capable of performing tens of thousands of counting operations. However, a person has undeniable advantages when working in difficult conditions; he also has enormous compensation capabilities; in a short time he can not only fully restore his working capacity, but also perform work at a higher level.

It is obvious that in any control system, functions between a person and automatic devices must be distributed in such a way as to ensure the possibility of manifestation of all those qualities that have been accumulated in modern man as a result of the labor activity of previous generations. In this regard, automatic devices, from the simplest to the most complex, are designed primarily to ensure high-performance and reliable operation of systems, while freeing a person from those functions for which he is least suited, and maximally presenting in the work process the functions that best suit human qualities as an individual, as a subject of activity.

1The concept of the “man - technology” system is used as a general one. It can be applied both to cases when the system includes one person and one or more technical devices, and to cases when the system includes several people and complex technical devices.

2Ergonomics can hardly yet be considered as an independent science, although statements of this kind take place in the literature. The cardinal solution in the formation of ergonomics as a science can only be the development methodological foundations and specific research methods.

3Work activity has always been and will be associated with a certain physical, and in conditions of automated production, primarily mental stress. Based general requirement, ensuring safe and harmless working conditions in our country, the above should be understood as the exclusion of loads that sharply worsen the functional state or negatively affect human health.

4In connection with the above, it is necessary to especially emphasize that along with | with the study of the formal (primarily quantitative) side of the psyche in engineering psychology, great attention should be paid to the content side. This is necessary, firstly, because engineering psychology is faced with the task of studying a person as a subject of activity, and secondly, because it is necessary to develop assessments of the semantic characteristics of information.

5During the period of operation, adaptation of equipment to a person can also be carried out due to those adjustments that are provided for in the design process. This is, for example, changing the seat height of a chair in relation to a person’s height, changing the volume or brightness of a signal depending on specific working conditions, etc.