Research methodology in management. Empirical method - what does it mean, types and methods of empirical knowledge
Empirical research methods
1. Empirical methods (methods-operations).
Study of literature, documents and results of activities. Issues of working with scientific literature will be discussed separately below, since this is not only a research method, but also a mandatory procedural component of any scientific work.
The source of factual material for the study is also a variety of documentation: archival materials in historical research; documentation of enterprises, organizations and institutions in economic, sociological, pedagogical and other studies, etc. The study of performance results plays an important role in pedagogy, especially when studying the problems of professional training of students; in psychology, pedagogy and sociology of labor; and, for example, in archeology, during excavations, the analysis of the results of human activity: by the remains of tools, dishes, dwellings, etc. allows us to restore the way of their life in a particular era.
Observation is, in principle, the most informative research method. This is the only method that allows you to see all aspects of the phenomena and processes being studied that are accessible to the perception of the observer - both directly and with the help of various instruments.
Depending on the goals pursued in the process of observation, the latter can be scientific or non-scientific. Purposeful and organized perception of objects and phenomena of the external world, associated with the solution of a specific scientific problem or task, is usually called scientific observation. Scientific observations involve obtaining certain information for further theoretical understanding and interpretation, for affirming or refuting a hypothesis, etc. Scientific observation consists of the following procedures:
- · determination of the purpose of observation (for what, for what purpose?);
- · selection of an object, process, situation (what to observe?);
- · choice of method and frequency of observations (how to observe?);
- · choice of methods for recording the observed object, phenomenon (how to record the information received?);
- · processing and interpretation of received information (what is the result?).
The observed situations are divided into:
- · natural and artificial;
- · controlled and not controlled by the subject of observation;
- · spontaneous and organized;
- · standard and non-standard;
- · normal and extreme, etc.
In addition, depending on the organization of observation, it can be open and hidden, field and laboratory, and depending on the nature of the recording - ascertaining, evaluative and mixed. Based on the method of obtaining information, observations are divided into direct and instrumental. Based on the scope of coverage of the objects under study, continuous and selective observations are distinguished; by frequency – constant, periodic and single. A special case of observation is self-observation, which is quite widely used, for example, in psychology.
Observation is necessary for scientific knowledge, since without it science would not be able to obtain initial information, would not have scientific facts and empirical data, therefore, the theoretical construction of knowledge would be impossible.
However, observation as a method of cognition has a number of significant disadvantages. Personal characteristics of the researcher, his interests, finally, his psychological condition can significantly affect the results of observation. Objective observation results are even more susceptible to distortion in cases where the researcher is focused on obtaining a certain result, on confirming his existing hypothesis.
To obtain objective observation results, it is necessary to comply with the requirements of intersubjectivity, that is, observation data must (and/or can) be obtained and recorded, if possible, by other observers.
Replacing direct observation with instruments unlimitedly expands the possibilities of observation, but also does not exclude subjectivity; the evaluation and interpretation of such indirect observation is carried out by the subject, and therefore the subject influence of the researcher can still occur.
Observation is most often accompanied by another empirical method - measurement.
Measurement. Measurement is used everywhere, in any human activity. Thus, almost every person takes measurements dozens of times during the day, looking at his watch. General definition measurement is as follows: “Measurement is a cognitive process consisting of comparing... a given quantity with some of its values, accepted as a standard of comparison” (see, for example,).
Including, measurement is an empirical method (method-operation) of scientific research.
A specific measurement structure can be distinguished, including the following elements:
1) a cognizing subject who carries out measurements for certain cognitive purposes;
2) measuring instruments, among which there can be both devices and tools designed by man, and objects and processes given by nature;
3) the object of measurement, that is, the measured quantity or property to which the comparison procedure is applicable;
4) a method or method of measurement, which is a set of practical actions, operations performed using measuring instruments, and also includes certain logical and computational procedures;
5) the result of a measurement, which is a named number expressed using appropriate names or signs.
The epistemological justification of the measurement method is inextricably linked with the scientific understanding of the relationship between the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of the object (phenomenon) being studied. Although this method only records quantitative characteristics, these characteristics are inextricably linked with the qualitative certainty of the object being studied. It is thanks to qualitative certainty that quantitative characteristics to be measured can be identified. The unity of the qualitative and quantitative aspects of the object being studied means both the relative independence of these aspects and their deep interconnection. The relative independence of quantitative characteristics makes it possible to study them during the measurement process, and use the measurement results to analyze the qualitative aspects of the object.
The problem of measurement accuracy also relates to the epistemological foundations of measurement as a method of empirical knowledge. The accuracy of the measurement depends on the ratio of objective and subjective factors in the measurement process.
Such objective factors include:
the possibility of identifying certain stable quantitative characteristics in the object under study, which in many cases of research, in particular, social and humanitarian phenomena and processes, is difficult, and sometimes even impossible;
– the capabilities of measuring instruments (their degree of perfection) and the conditions in which the measurement process takes place. In some cases, finding the exact value of a quantity is fundamentally impossible. It is impossible, for example, to determine the trajectory of an electron in an atom, etc.
Subjective measurement factors include the choice of measurement methods, the organization of this process and a whole range of cognitive capabilities of the subject - from the qualifications of the experimenter to his ability to correctly and competently interpret the results obtained.
Along with direct measurements, the method of indirect measurement is widely used in the process of scientific experimentation. With indirect measurement, the desired quantity is determined on the basis of direct measurements of other quantities associated with the first functional dependence. Based on the measured values of mass and volume of a body, its density is determined; resistivity conductor can be found from the measured resistance values, length and cross-sectional area of the conductor, etc. The role of indirect measurements is especially great in cases where direct measurement under conditions objective reality impossible. For example, the mass of any space object (natural) is determined using mathematical calculations based on the use of measurement data of other physical quantities.
The measurement results need to be analyzed, and for this it is often necessary to build derivative (secondary) indicators on their basis, that is, apply one or another transformation to the experimental data. The most common derived indicator is the averaging of values - for example, the average weight of people, average height, average per capita income, etc.
Survey. This empirical method is used only in the social sciences and humanities. The survey method is divided into oral survey and written survey.
Oral survey (conversation, interview). The essence of the method is clear from its name. During the interview, the questioner has personal contact with the answerer, that is, he has the opportunity to see how the answerer reacts to a particular question. The observer can, if necessary, ask various additional questions and thus obtain additional data on some unanswered questions.
Oral surveys provide concrete results, and with their help it is possible to obtain comprehensive answers to complex questions of interest to the researcher. However, to questions
respondents of a “sensitive” nature answer in writing much more frankly and give more detailed and thorough answers.
The respondent spends less time and energy on an oral response than on a written one. However, this method also has its negative sides. All respondents are in different conditions, some of them can receive additional information through the researcher’s leading questions; the facial expression or some gesture of the researcher has some effect on the respondent.
The questions used for the interview are planned in advance and a questionnaire is drawn up, where space should be left for recording (logging) the answer.
Basic requirements when writing questions:
the survey should not be random, but systematic; at the same time, questions that are more understandable to the respondent are asked earlier, more difficult ones - later;
questions should be concise, specific and understandable to all respondents;
questions should not conflict with ethical standards. Survey rules:
1) during the interview, the researcher must be alone with the respondent, without outside witnesses;
2) each oral question is read from the question sheet (questionnaire) verbatim, unchanged;
3) the order of the questions is strictly followed; the respondent should not see the questionnaire or be able to read subsequent questions;
4) the interview should be short - from 15 to 30 minutes, depending on the age and intellectual level of the respondents;
5) the interviewer should not influence the respondent in any way (indirectly suggest an answer, shake his head as a sign of disapproval, nod his head, etc.);
6) the interviewer can, if necessary, if the given answer is unclear, ask additionally only neutral questions (for example: “What did you want to say by this?”, “Explain in a little more detail!”).
7) answers are recorded in the questionnaire only during the survey.
The responses are subsequently analyzed and interpreted.
Written survey – questionnaire. It is based on a pre-developed questionnaire (questionnaire), and the responses of respondents (interviewees) to all items of the questionnaire constitute the required empirical information.
The quality of empirical information obtained as a result of a survey depends on factors such as the wording of the survey questions, which should be understandable to the respondent; qualifications, experience, integrity, psychological characteristics of researchers; the situation of the survey, its conditions; emotional state of the respondents; customs and traditions, ideas, everyday situations; and also – attitude towards the survey. Therefore, when using such information, it is always necessary to make allowances for the inevitability of subjective distortions due to the specific individual “refraction” of it in the minds of the respondents. And where we are talking about fundamentally important issues, along with the survey, they also turn to other methods - observation, expert assessments, and document analysis.
Particular attention is paid to the development of a questionnaire - a questionnaire containing a series of questions necessary to obtain information in accordance with the objectives and hypothesis of the study. The questionnaire must meet the following requirements: be reasonable regarding the purposes of its use, that is, provide the required information; have stable criteria and reliable rating scales that adequately reflect the situation being studied; the wording of the questions must be clear to the respondent and consistent; Questionnaire questions should not cause negative emotions in the respondent (answer).
Questions can be closed or open form. A question is called closed if it has a full set of answer options in the questionnaire. The respondent only marks the option that coincides with his opinion. This form of the questionnaire significantly reduces the filling out time and at the same time makes the questionnaire suitable for processing on a computer. But sometimes there is a need to find out directly the opinion of the respondent on a question that excludes pre-prepared answer options. In this case, they resort to open questions.
When answering an open question, the respondent is guided only by his own ideas. Therefore, this response is more individualized.
Compliance with a number of other requirements also helps to increase the reliability of answers. One of them is to provide the respondent with the opportunity to evade the answer and express an uncertain opinion. To do this, the rating scale should include answer options: “hard to say”, “difficult to answer”, “sometimes differently", "when and how", etc. But the predominance of such options in the answers is evidence of either the incompetence of the respondent or the unsuitability of the wording of the question to obtain the necessary information.
In order to obtain reliable information about the phenomenon or process under study, it is not necessary to interview the entire contingent, since the object of study can be numerically very large. In cases where the object of study exceeds several hundred people, selective questioning is used.
Method of expert assessments. Essentially, this is a type of survey associated with the involvement of the most competent people in the assessment of the phenomena and processes being studied, whose opinions, complementing and cross-checking each other, allow a fairly objective assessment of what is being studied. Using this method requires a number of conditions. First of all, this is a careful selection of experts - people who know the area being assessed, the object being studied well, and are capable of an objective, unbiased assessment.
The choice of an accurate and convenient rating system and corresponding measurement scales is also essential, which organizes judgments and makes it possible to express them in certain quantities.
It is often necessary to train experts to use the proposed scales for unambiguous assessment in order to minimize errors and make assessments comparable.
If experts acting independently of each other consistently give coinciding or similar assessments or express similar opinions, there is reason to believe that they are approaching objectiveness. If the estimates differ greatly, then this indicates either an unsuccessful choice of the rating system and measurement scales, or the incompetence of the experts.
Varieties of the expert assessment method are: the commission method, the brainstorming method, the Delphi method, the heuristic forecasting method, etc.
Testing is an empirical method, a diagnostic procedure consisting in the use of tests (from English test - task, sample). Tests are usually asked to subjects either in the form of a list of questions that require short and unambiguous answers, or in the form of tasks that do not take much time to solve and also require unambiguous solutions, or in the form of any short-term practical work of the subjects, for example, qualifying trial work in vocational education, in labor economics, etc. Tests are divided into blank, hardware (for example, on a computer) and practical; for individual and group use.
These are, perhaps, all the empirical methods and operations that the scientific community has at its disposal today. Next, we will consider empirical action methods, which are based on the use of operational methods and their combinations.
2. Empirical methods (methods-actions).
Empirical methods-actions should, first of all, be divided into two classes. The first class is methods of studying an object without transforming it, when the researcher does not make any changes or transformations to the object of study. More precisely, it does not make significant changes to the object - after all, according to the principle of complementarity (see above), the researcher (observer) cannot help but change the object. Let's call them object tracking methods. These include: the tracking method itself and its particular manifestations - examination, monitoring, study and generalization of experience.
Another class of methods is associated with the researcher’s active transformation of the object being studied - let’s call these methods transformative methods - this class will include methods such as experimental work and experiment.
Tracking, often in a number of sciences, is perhaps the only empirical method-action. For example, in astronomy. After all, astronomers cannot yet influence the space objects they study. The only way to monitor their condition is through operation methods: observation and measurement. The same, to a large extent, applies to such industries scientific knowledge like geography, demography, etc., where the researcher cannot change anything in the object of research.
In addition, tracking is also used when the goal is to study the natural functioning of an object. For example, when studying certain features of radioactive radiation or when studying the reliability technical devices, which is verified by their long-term operation.
Survey - as a special case of the tracking method, is the study of the object under study with one or another measure of depth and detail, depending on the tasks set by the researcher. A synonym for the word “inspection” is “inspection,” which suggests that an inspection is basically an initial study of an object, carried out to familiarize itself with its condition, functions, structure, etc. Surveys are most often used in relation to organizational structures - enterprises, institutions, etc. - or in relation to public entities, for example, settlements for which surveys can be external and internal.
External surveys: survey of the sociocultural and economic situation in the region, survey of the goods and services market and the labor market, survey of the state of employment of the population, etc. Internal surveys: surveys within an enterprise, institution - survey of the state of the production process, surveys of the workforce, etc.
The examination is carried out using methods-operations empirical research: observation, study and analysis of documentation, oral and written questioning, involvement of experts, etc.
Any survey is carried out according to a pre-developed detailed program, in which the content of the work, its tools (drawing up questionnaires, sets of tests, questionnaires, a list of documents to be studied, etc.) are planned in detail, as well as criteria for assessing the phenomena and processes to be studied. Then follow the stages: collecting information, summarizing materials, summing up results and preparing reporting materials. At each stage, it may be necessary to adjust the survey program when the researcher or group of researchers conducting it becomes convinced that the collected data is not enough to obtain the desired results, or the collected data does not reflect the picture of the object being studied, etc.
Based on the degree of depth, detail and systematization, surveys are divided into:
– aerobatic (reconnaissance) surveys carried out for preliminary, relatively superficial orientation in the object under study;
– specialized (partial) surveys conducted to study individual aspects and aspects of the object being studied;
modular (complex) surveys - for the study of entire blocks, sets of questions programmed by the researcher on the basis of a sufficiently detailed preliminary study of the object, its structure, functions, etc.;
systemic examinations – carried out as full-fledged independent research based on the identification and formulation of their subject, purpose, hypothesis, etc., and implying a holistic consideration of the object and its system-forming factors.
The researcher or the research team decides at what level to carry out the survey in each specific case, depending on the goals and objectives of the scientific work.
Monitoring. This is constant supervision, regular monitoring of the condition of an object, the values of its individual parameters in order to study the dynamics of ongoing processes, predict certain events, and also prevent undesirable phenomena. For example, environmental monitoring, synoptic monitoring, etc.
Study and generalization of experience (activities). When conducting research, the study and generalization of experience (organizational, industrial, technological, medical, pedagogical, etc.) is used for various purposes: to determine the existing level of detail of enterprises, organizations, institutions, functioning technological process, identifying shortcomings and bottlenecks in the practice of a particular field of activity, studying the effectiveness of applying scientific recommendations, identifying new models of activity that are born in the creative search of leading managers, specialists and entire teams. The object of study can be: mass experience - to identify the main trends in the development of a particular sector of the national economy; negative experience – to identify typical shortcomings and bottlenecks; advanced experience, in the process of which new positive discoveries are identified, generalized, and become the property of science and practice.
The study and generalization of advanced experience is one of the main sources for the development of science, since this method allows us to identify current scientific problems and creates the basis for studying the patterns of development of processes in a number of areas of scientific knowledge, primarily the so-called technological sciences.
The disadvantage of the tracking method and its variations is:
- survey, monitoring, study and generalization of experience as empirical methods-actions - is the relatively passive role of the researcher - he can study, monitor and generalize only what has developed in the surrounding reality, without being able to actively influence the ongoing processes. Let us emphasize once again that this shortcoming is often due to objective circumstances. Methods for transforming an object do not have this drawback: experimental work and experiment.
Methods that transform the object of research include experimental work and experiment. The difference between them lies in the degree of arbitrariness of the researcher’s actions. If experimental work is a loose research procedure in which the researcher makes changes to the object at his own discretion, based on his own considerations of expediency, then an experiment is a completely strict procedure where the researcher must strictly follow the requirements of the experiment.
Experimental work is, as already mentioned, a method of introducing deliberate changes into the object under study with a certain degree of arbitrariness. So, the geologist himself determines where to look, what to look for, what methods to use - drill wells, dig pits, etc. In the same way, an archaeologist or paleontologist determines where and how to excavate. Or in pharmacy there is a long search for new drugs - out of 10 thousand synthesized compounds, only one becomes medicine. Or, for example, experienced work in agriculture.
Experimental work as a research method is widely used in sciences related to human activities - pedagogy, economics, etc., when models are created and tested, usually proprietary ones: of companies, educational institutions etc., or various proprietary methods are created and tested. Or an experimental textbook, an experimental drug is being created, prototype and then they are tested in practice.
Experimental work is in a sense similar to a thought experiment - in both cases the question is posed: “what will happen if...?” Only in a thought experiment is the situation played out “in the mind,” but in experimental work is the situation played out in action.
But experimental work is not a blind, chaotic search through “trial and error.”
Experimental work becomes a method of scientific research under the following conditions:
- When it is set on the basis of data obtained by science in accordance with a theoretically based hypothesis.
- When it is accompanied by in-depth analysis, conclusions are drawn from it and theoretical generalizations are created.
In experimental work, all methods and operations of empirical research are used: observation, measurement, document analysis, expert review etc.
Experimental work occupies an intermediate place between object tracking and experimentation.
It is a way for the researcher to actively intervene in an object. However, experimental work gives, in particular, only the results of the effectiveness or ineffectiveness of certain innovations in a general, summary form. Which of the factors of introduced innovations give a greater effect, which ones have a smaller effect, how they influence each other - experimental work cannot answer these questions.
For a deeper study of the essence of a particular phenomenon, the changes occurring in it, and the reasons for these changes, in the process of research they resort to varying the conditions for the occurrence of phenomena and processes and the factors influencing them. The experiment serves these purposes.
An experiment is a general empirical research method (action method), the essence of which is that phenomena and processes are studied under strictly controlled and manageable conditions. The basic principle of any experiment is to change only one factor in each research procedure, while keeping the rest unchanged and controlled. If it is necessary to check the influence of another factor, the following research procedure is carried out, where this last factor is changed, and all other controlled factors remain unchanged, etc.
During the experiment, the researcher deliberately changes the course of some phenomenon by introducing a new factor into it. A new factor introduced or changed by the experimenter is called an experimental factor, or independent variable. Factors that change under the influence of an independent variable are called dependent variables.
There are many classifications of experiments in the literature. First of all, depending on the nature of the object being studied, it is customary to distinguish between physical, chemical, biological, psychological, etc. experiments. According to the main purpose, experiments are divided into verification (empirical verification of a certain hypothesis) and exploratory (collection of the necessary empirical information to construct or clarify the put forward guess or idea). Depending on the nature and variety of means and experimental conditions and methods of using these means, one can distinguish between direct (if the means are used directly to study the object), model (if a model is used that replaces the object), field (in natural conditions, for example, in space ), laboratory (in artificial conditions) experiment.
Finally, we can talk about qualitative and quantitative experiments, based on the difference in the results of the experiment. Qualitative experiments, as a rule, are undertaken to identify the impact of certain factors on the process under study without establishing an exact quantitative relationship between characteristic quantities. To ensure accurate values of the essential parameters influencing the behavior of the object under study, a quantitative experiment is necessary.
Depending on the nature of the strategy experimental research distinguish:
1) experiments carried out using the “trial and error” method;
2) experiments based on a closed algorithm;
3) experiments using the “black box” method, leading to conclusions from knowledge of the function to knowledge of the structure of the object;
4) experiments using an “open box”, allowing, based on knowledge of the structure, to create a sample with given functions.
IN last years Experiments in which a computer is a means of cognition have become widespread. They are especially important when real systems do not allow either direct experimentation or experimentation using material models. In a number of cases, computer experiments dramatically simplify the research process - with their help, situations are “played out” by constructing a model of the system being studied.
In talking about experiment as a method of cognition, one cannot fail to note another type of experimentation, which plays a large role in natural science research. This is a thought experiment - the researcher operates not with specific, sensory material, but with an ideal, model image. All knowledge obtained during mental experimentation is subject to practical testing, in particular in a real experiment. That's why this type experimentation should be classified as a method of theoretical knowledge (see above). P.V. Kopnin, for example, writes: “Scientific research is only truly experimental when the conclusion is drawn not from speculative reasoning, but from sensory, practical observation of phenomena. Therefore, what is sometimes called a theoretical or thought experiment is not actually an experiment. A thought experiment is ordinary theoretical reasoning that takes the external form of an experiment.”
Theoretical methods of scientific knowledge should also include some other types of experiment, for example, the so-called mathematical and simulation experiments. “The essence of the method of mathematical experiment is that experiments are carried out not with the object itself, as is the case in the classical experimental method, but with its description in the language of the corresponding branch of mathematics.” A simulation experiment is an idealized study by modeling the behavior of an object instead of actual experimentation. In other words, these types of experimentation are variants of a model experiment with idealized images. More about mathematical modeling and simulation experiments is discussed below in the third chapter.
So, we tried to describe research methods from the most general positions. Naturally, in each branch of scientific knowledge certain traditions have developed in the interpretation and use of research methods. Thus, the frequency analysis method in linguistics will refer to the tracking method (method-action), carried out by the methods-operations of document analysis and measurement. Experiments are usually divided into ascertaining, training, control and comparative. But all of them are experiments (methods-actions), carried out by methods-operations: observation, measurement, testing, etc.
There is a movement from ignorance to knowledge. Thus, the first step cognitive process— determination of what we don’t know. It is important to clearly and strictly define the problem, separating what we already know from what we do not yet know. The problem(from the Greek problema - task) is a complex and controversial issue that requires resolution.
The second step is the development of a hypothesis (from the Greek hypothesis - assumption). Hypothesis - This is a scientifically based assumption that requires testing.
If the hypothesis is proven a large number facts, it becomes a theory (from the Greek theoria - observation, research). Theory is a system of knowledge that describes and explains certain phenomena; such as, for example, evolutionary theory, the theory of relativity, quantum theory and etc.
When choosing the best theory, the degree of its testability plays an important role. A theory is reliable if it is confirmed by objective facts (including newly discovered ones) and if it is distinguished by clarity, distinctness, and logical rigor.
Scientific facts
It is necessary to distinguish between objective and scientific data. Objective fact- this is a really existing object, process or event that took place. For example, the death of Mikhail Yuryevich Lermontov (1814-1841) in a duel is a fact. Scientific fact is knowledge that is confirmed and interpreted within the framework of a generally accepted system of knowledge.
Assessments are opposed to facts and reflect the significance of objects or phenomena for a person, his approving or disapproving attitude towards them. Scientific facts usually record the objective world as it is, while assessments reflect a person’s subjective position, his interests, and the level of his moral and aesthetic consciousness.
Most of the difficulties for science arise in the process of transition from hypothesis to theory. There are methods and procedures that allow you to test a hypothesis and prove it or reject it as incorrect.
Method(from the Greek methodos - the path to the goal) is called a rule, technique, way of cognition. In general, a method is a system of rules and regulations that allow one to study an object. F. Bacon called the method “a lamp in the hands of a traveler walking in the dark.”
Methodology is a broader concept and can be defined as:
- a set of methods used in any science;
- general doctrine of method.
Since the criteria of truth in its classical scientific understanding are, on the one hand, sensory experience and practice, and on the other, clarity and logical distinctness, all known methods can be divided into empirical (experimental, practical ways of knowing) and theoretical (logical procedures).
Empirical methods of cognition
basis empirical methods are sensory cognition (sensation, perception, representation) and instrument data. These methods include:
- observation— purposeful perception of phenomena without interfering with them;
- experiment— study of phenomena under controlled and controlled conditions;
- measurement - determination of the ratio of the measured quantity to
- standard (for example, meter);
- comparison— identification of similarities or differences between objects or their characteristics.
There are no pure empirical methods in scientific knowledge, since even simple observation requires preliminary theoretical foundations - choosing an object for observation, formulating a hypothesis, etc.
Theoretical methods of cognition
Actually theoretical methods rely on rational cognition (concept, judgment, inference) and logical inference procedures. These methods include:
- analysis- the process of mental or real division of an object, phenomenon into parts (signs, properties, relationships);
- synthesis - combining the aspects of the subject identified during the analysis into a single whole;
- — combining various objects into groups based on common characteristics (classification of animals, plants, etc.);
- abstraction - distraction in the process of cognition from some properties of an object for the purpose of in-depth study of one specific aspect of it (the result of abstraction is abstract concepts such as color, curvature, beauty, etc.);
- formalization - display of knowledge in a sign, symbolic form (in mathematical formulas, chemical symbols, etc.);
- analogy - inference about the similarity of objects in a certain respect based on their similarity in a number of other respects;
- modeling— creation and study of a proxy (model) of an object (for example, computer modelling human genome);
- idealization— creation of concepts for objects that do not exist in reality, but have a prototype in it (geometric point, ball, ideal gas);
- deduction - movement from the general to the specific;
- induction- movement from the particular (facts) to a general statement.
Theoretical methods require empirical facts. So, although induction itself is a theoretical logical operation, it still requires experimental verification of each particular fact, therefore it is based on empirical knowledge, and not theoretically. Thus, theoretical and empirical methods exist in unity, complementing each other. All of the methods listed above are methods-techniques (specific rules, action algorithms).
Wider methods-approaches indicate only the direction and general way of solving problems. Method approaches can include many different techniques. These are the structural-functional method, the hermeneutic method, etc. The extremely general methods-approaches are the philosophical methods:
- metaphysical— viewing an object askew, statically, out of connection with other objects;
- dialectical- disclosure of the laws of development and change of things in their interrelation, internal contradiction and unity.
Absolutization of one method as the only correct one is called dogmatics(for example, dialectical materialism in Soviet philosophy). An uncritical accumulation of various unrelated methods is called eclecticism.
Empirical methods
| Parameter name | Meaning |
| Article topic: | Empirical methods |
| Rubric (thematic category) | Production |
Empirical methods - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Empirical methods" 2017, 2018.
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25. Methods of empirical research.
At the empirical level, methods such as observation, description, comparison, measurement, experiment.
Observation- this is a systematic and purposeful perception of phenomena, during which we gain knowledge about the external aspects, properties and relationships of the objects being studied.
Observation is always not contemplative, but active, active in nature. It is subordinated to the solution of a specific scientific problem and therefore is distinguished by its purposefulness, selectivity and systematicity. The observer does not simply record empirical data, but shows research initiative: he looks for those facts that really interest him in connection with theoretical principles, selects them, and gives them a primary interpretation.
One of the most important features of modern scientific observation is technical equipment. The purpose of technical surveillance equipment is not only to increase the accuracy of the data obtained, but also to ensure the opportunity observe a cognizable object, because many subject areas modern science owe their existence primarily to the availability of appropriate technical support.
The results of scientific observation are represented in some specifically scientific way, i.e. in a special language using terms descriptions, comparisons or measurements. In other words, observation data are immediately structured in one way or another (as the results of a special descriptions or scale values comparisons, or the results measurements). In this case, the data is recorded in the form of graphs, tables, diagrams, etc., this is how the primary systematization of the material is carried out, suitable for further theorization.
Scientific observation is always mediated by theoretical knowledge, since it is the latter that determines the object and subject of observation, the purpose of observation and the method of its implementation. During observation, the researcher is always guided by a specific idea, concept or hypothesis. The interpretation of observation is also always carried out with the help of certain theoretical principles.
Basic requirements for scientific observation: unambiguous design, the presence of strictly defined means (in technical sciences - instruments), objectivity of the results. Objectivity is ensured by the possibility of control through either repeated observation or the use of other research methods, in particular experiment.
Observation as a method of empirical research performs many functions in scientific knowledge. First of all, observation gives the scientist an increase in the information necessary to pose problems, put forward hypotheses, and test theories. Observation is combined with other research methods: it can act as the initial stage of research, preceding the setting up of an experiment, which is required for a more detailed analysis of any aspects of the object being studied; it can, on the contrary, be carried out after experimental intervention, acquiring important meaning dynamic observation, as, for example, in medicine, an important role is given to postoperative observation following an experimental operation. Finally, observation is included in other research situations as an essential component: observation is carried out directly during the experiment .
Observation as a research situation includes:
1) the subject carrying out the observation or observer ;
2) observed object ;
3) conditions and circumstances of observation, which include specific conditions of time and place, technical means of observation and theoretical knowledge necessary to create a given research situation.
Classification of observations:
1) according to the perceived object - observation direct (in which the researcher studies the properties of a directly observed object) and indirect (in which it is not the object itself that is perceived, but the effects that it causes in the environment or another object. By analyzing these effects, we obtain information about the original object, although, strictly speaking, the object itself remains unobservable. For example, in the physics of the microworld, elementary particles are judged according to the traces that particles leave during their movement, these traces are recorded and theoretically interpreted);
2) by research means - observation direct (not equipped with instruments, carried out directly by the senses) and indirect, or instrumental (carried out with the help of technical means, i.e. special devices, often very complex, requiring special knowledge and auxiliary material and technical equipment), this type of observation is now basic in the natural sciences;
3) by impact on the object - neutral (not affecting the structure and behavior of the object) and transformative(in which some change occurs in the object being studied and the conditions of its functioning; this type of observation is often intermediate between observation itself and experiment);
4) in relation to the totality of the phenomena being studied - solid (when all units of the population under study are studied) and selective (when only a certain part, a sample from the population, is examined); this division is important in statistics;
5) according to time parameters - continuous And intermittent; at continuous the research is carried out without interruption for a fairly long period of time, it is used mainly to study processes that are difficult to predict, for example in social psychology, ethnography; intermittent has different subtypes: periodic and non-periodic.
Description– recording by means of natural or artificial language the results of an experiment (observation or experiment data). As a rule, the description is based on narrative schemes using natural language. At the same time, description is possible using certain notation systems accepted in science (diagrams, graphs, drawings, tables, diagrams, etc.).
In the past, descriptive procedures played a very important role in science. Many disciplines used to be purely descriptive. For example, in modern European science until the 18th century. Natural scientists compiled voluminous descriptions of all sorts of properties of plants, minerals, substances, etc. (and from a modern point of view, often somewhat haphazardly), building long series of qualities, similarities and differences between objects. Today, descriptive science as a whole has been replaced in its positions by directions oriented toward mathematical methods. However, even now description as a means of representing empirical data has not lost its significance. In the biological sciences, where direct observation and descriptive presentation of material were their beginning, descriptive procedures continue to be significantly used today in disciplines such as botany And zoology. Description plays the most important role in humanitarian sciences: history, ethnography, sociology, etc.; and also in geographical And geological sciences Of course, description in modern science has taken on a slightly different character compared to its previous forms. In modern descriptive procedures, standards of accuracy and unambiguity of descriptions are of great importance. After all, a truly scientific description of experimental data should have the same meaning for any scientist, i.e. must be universal, constant in its content. This means that it is necessary to strive for such concepts, the meaning of which is clarified and fixed in one or another recognized way.
Of course, descriptive procedures inherently allow for some possibility of ambiguity and inaccuracy of presentation. For example, depending on the individual style of a particular geologist, descriptions of the same geological objects sometimes turn out to be significantly different from each other. The same thing happens in medicine during the initial examination of a patient. However, in general, these discrepancies are corrected in real scientific practice, acquiring a greater degree of reliability. For this purpose, special procedures are used: comparison of data from independent sources of information, standardization of descriptions, clarification of criteria for using a particular assessment, control by more objective, instrumental research methods, harmonization of terminology, etc.
Comparison– a method that reveals the similarity or difference of objects (or stages of development of the same object), i.e. their identity and differences.
When comparing, empirical data are represented, respectively, in in terms of comparison. This means that the characteristic denoted by the comparative term can have different degrees of expression, i.e. be attributed to some object to a greater or lesser extent compared to another object from the same population under study. For example, one object may be warmer or darker than another; one color may seem more pleasant to a subject in a psychological test than another, etc.
It is characteristic that the comparison operation is feasible even when we do not have a clear definition of any term, there are no exact standards for comparative procedures. For example, we may not know what the “perfect” red color looks like and may not be able to characterize it, but at the same time we may well compare colors according to the degree of “distance” from the supposed standard, saying that one of the family of similar red colors is clearly lighter than red , the other is darker, the third is even darker than the second, etc.
Comparison plays an important role when trying to reach a consensus on difficult issues. For example, when evaluating a certain theory, the question of whether it is unambiguously characterized as true can cause serious difficulties, while it is much easier to come to unity in comparative particular questions that this theory fits the data better than a competing theory, or that it is simpler than the other, more intuitively plausible, etc. These successful qualities of comparative judgments contributed to the fact that comparative procedures and comparative concepts took an important place in scientific methodology.
The significance of comparison terms also lies in the fact that with their help it is possible to achieve a very noticeable increase in accuracy in concepts where methods of direct introduction of units of measurement, i.e. translation into the language of mathematics does not work due to the specifics of this scientific field. This applies, first of all, to the humanities. In such areas, through the use of comparison terms, it is possible to construct certain scales with an ordered structure similar to a number series. And precisely because it turns out to be easier to formulate a relational judgment than to give a qualitative description in an absolute degree, terms of comparison make it possible to organize the subject area without introducing a clear unit of measurement. A typical example of this approach is the Mohs scale in mineralogy. It is used to determine the comparative hardness of minerals. According to this technique, proposed in 1811 by F. Mohs, one mineral is considered harder than another if it leaves a scratch on it; on this basis, a conditional 10-point hardness scale is introduced, in which the hardness of talc is taken as 1, the hardness of diamond - as 10.
To perform a comparison operation, certain conditions and logical rules are required. First of all, there must be a certain qualitative homogeneity of the objects being compared; these objects must belong to the same naturally formed class), as, for example, in biology we compare the structure of organisms belonging to the same taxonomic unit. Further, the material being compared must obey a certain logical structure, which in sufficiently can be described by the so-called order relations .
In the case when the comparison operation comes first, becoming, as it were, the semantic core of the entire scientific search, i.e. acts as the leading procedure in the organization of empirical material, they talk about comparative method in one or another area of research. A clear example of this is the biological sciences. The comparative method played a crucial role in the development of such disciplines as comparative anatomy, comparative physiology, embryology, evolutionary biology, etc. Using comparative procedures, qualitative and quantitative studies of the form and function, genesis and evolution of organisms are carried out. Using the comparative method, knowledge about diverse biological phenomena is organized, the possibility of putting forward hypotheses and creating generalizing concepts is created. Thus, on the basis of the commonality of the morphological structure of certain organisms, a hypothesis is naturally put forward about the commonality of their origin or life activity, etc.
Measurement– a research method in which the relationship of one quantity to another, which serves as a standard, is established. Measurement is a method of attribution carried out according to certain rules. quantitative characteristics objects being studied, their properties or relationships. The measurement structure includes:
1) the object of measurement, considered as size, subject to measurement;
2) measurement method, including a metric scale with a fixed unit of measurement, measurement rules, measuring instruments;
3) the subject, or observer, who carries out the measurement;
4) the measurement result, which is subject to further interpretation.
In scientific practice, measurement is not always a relatively simple procedure; Much more often, it requires complex, specially prepared conditions. In modern physics, the measurement process itself is supported by fairly serious theoretical constructs; they contain, for example, a set of assumptions and theories about the structure and operation of the measuring and experimental installation itself, about the interaction of the measuring device and the object being studied, about the physical meaning of certain quantities obtained as a result of measurement.
To illustrate the range of issues related to theoretical support measurements, one can point out the difference in measurement procedures for quantities extensive And intensive. Extensive quantities are measured using simple operations that record the properties of individual objects. Such quantities include, for example, length, mass, time. A completely different approach is required to measure intensive quantities. Such quantities include, for example, temperature and gas pressure. They characterize not the properties of individual objects, but the mass, statistically fixed parameters of collective objects. To measure such quantities, special rules are required, with the help of which one can organize the range of values of an intensive quantity, construct a scale, highlight fixed values on it, and set a unit of measurement. Thus, the creation of a thermometer is preceded by a set of special actions to create a scale suitable for measuring the quantitative value of temperature.
Measurements are usually divided into straight And indirect. When performing a direct measurement, the result is achieved directly from the measurement process itself. With indirect measurement, the value is obtained
some other quantities, and the desired result is achieved using calculations based on a certain mathematical relationship between these quantities. Many phenomena that are inaccessible to direct measurement, such as microscopic objects and distant cosmic bodies, can only be measured indirectly.
Experiment– a research method through which active and purposeful perception of a specific object occurs under controlled and controlled conditions.
Main features of the experiment:
1) an active attitude towards the object up to its change and transformation;
2) repeated reproducibility of the studied object at the request of the researcher;
3) the possibility of detecting properties of phenomena that are not observed in natural conditions;
4) the possibility of considering the phenomenon “in its pure form” by isolating it from external influences, or by changing the experimental conditions;
5) the ability to control the “behavior” of an object and check the results.
We can say that an experiment is an idealized experience. It makes it possible to monitor the progress of changes in a phenomenon, actively influence it, and recreate it, if necessary, before comparing the results obtained. Therefore, experiment is a stronger and more effective method than observation or measurement, where the phenomenon under study remains unchanged. This is the highest form of empirical research.
An experiment is used either to create a situation that allows one to study an object in its pure form, or to test existing hypotheses and theories, or to formulate new hypotheses and theoretical concepts. Every experiment is always guided by some theoretical idea, concept, hypothesis. Experimental data, as well as observations, are always theoretically loaded - from its setup to the interpretation of the results.
Stages of the experiment:
1) planning and construction (its purpose, type, means, etc.);
2) control;
3) interpretation of the results.
Experiment structure:
1) object of study;
2) creation necessary conditions(material factors influencing the object of study, elimination of undesirable effects - interference);
3) experimental methodology;
4) a hypothesis or theory that needs to be tested.
As a rule, experimentation involves the use of simpler practical methods - observations, comparisons and measurements. Since an experiment is not carried out, as a rule, without observations and measurements, it must meet their methodological requirements. In particular, as with observations and measurements, an experiment can be considered demonstrative if it can be reproduced by any other person in another place in space and at another time and gives the same result.
Types of experiment:
Depending on the objectives of the experiment, there are research experiments (the task is the formation of new scientific theories), verification experiments (testing existing hypotheses and theories), decisive experiments (confirming one and refuting another of the competing theories).
Depending on the nature of the objects, physical, chemical, biological, social and other experiments are distinguished.
There are also qualitative experiments aimed at establishing the presence or absence of an expected phenomenon, and measurement experiments that reveal the quantitative certainty of a certain property.
Empirical research methods
The word "experiential" literally means "that which is perceived by the senses." When this adjective is used in relation to scientific research methods, it serves to designate techniques and methods associated with sensory (feeling) experience. Therefore, they say that empirical methods are based on the so-called. “hard (irrefutable) data” (“hard data”). In addition, empirical research. firmly adheres to scientific method as opposed to other research methodologies, such as naturalistic observation, archival research, etc. The most important and necessary prerequisite underlying the methodology of empirical research. is that it provides the possibility of its reproduction and confirmation/refutation. Bias of empirical research. to “hard data” requires high internal consistency and stability of the means of measurement (and measures) of those independent and dependent variables that are used for the purpose of scientific study. Internal consistency is key. stability condition; measurement tools cannot be highly or even sufficiently reliable unless these tools, which supply raw data for subsequent analysis, produce high intercorrelations. Failure to meet this requirement introduces error variance into the system and results in ambiguous or misleading results.
Sampling techniques
M. e. And. depend on the availability of adequate and effective techniques sample research, providing reliable and valid data, which could be reasonably and without loss of meaning extended to populations from which these representative samples, or at least closely approximating them, were extracted. Although most statistical methods, used to analyze empirical data, assume essentially random selection and/or random distribution of subjects across experiments. conditions (groups), randomness per se is not the main issue. Rather, it lies in the undesirability of using primes as test subjects. or exclusively those who constitute extremely limited or refined samples, as in the case of an invitation to participate in a study. volunteer college students, which is widely practiced in psychology and other social sciences. and behavioral sciences. This approach negates the benefits of empirical research. before other research methodologies.
Measurement accuracy
M. e. And. in general - and in psychology in particular - are inevitably associated with the use of multiple measures. In psychology, such measures are used, ch. arr., observed or perceived patterns of behavior, self-reports, etc. psychol. phenomena. It is critical that these measures are sufficiently precise, while also being clearly interpretable and valid. Otherwise, as in the situation with inadequate sampling methods, the advantages of empirical research methodologies. will be negated by erroneous and/or misleading results. When using psychometrics, the researcher is faced with at least two serious problems: a) the crudeness of even the most sophisticated and reliable instruments available for making measurements of the independent and dependent variables, and b) the fact that any psychol. the measurement is not direct, but indirect. No psychol. the property cannot be measured directly; only its intended manifestation in behavior can be measured. For example, such a property as “aggressiveness” can only be indirectly judged by the degree of its manifestation or recognition by the individual, measured using a special scale or other psychol. instrument or technique designed to measure various degrees“aggressiveness” as it is defined and understood by the developers of the measurement instrument.
Data obtained as a result of psychological measurements. variables represent only the observed values of these variables (X0). The “true” values (Xi) always remain unknown. They can only be estimated, and this estimate depends on the magnitude of the error (Xe) present in any individual X0. In all psychol. measurements, the observed value represents a certain region rather than a point (as this can happen, for example, in physics or thermodynamics): X0 = Xi + Xe. Therefore, for empirical research. It seems extremely important that the X0 values of all variables turn out to be close to Xi. This can only be achieved through the use of highly reliable measuring instruments and procedures, which are used or implemented by experienced and qualified scientists or specialists.
Control in the experiment
In empirical research. There are 3 types of variables that influence the course of an experiment: a) independent variables, b) dependent variables and c) intermediate, or extraneous, variables. The first 2 types of variables are included in the experiment. plan by the researcher himself; variables of the third type are not introduced by the researcher, but are always present in the experiment - and they should be controlled. Independent variables are related to or reflect environmental conditions that can be manipulated in an experiment; dependent variables relate to or reflect behavioral outcomes. The purpose of the experiment is to vary environmental conditions (independent variables) and observe the behavioral events that occur (dependent variables), while simultaneously controlling (or eliminating the effects) of the influence of any other (extraneous) variables on them.
Control of variables in an experiment, which requires empirical research, can be achieved either with the help of experiments. plan, or using statistical methods.
Experimental plans
As a rule, in empirical research. 3 main ones are used. kind of experimental. designs: a) hypothesis testing designs, b) evaluation designs, and c) quasi-experimental designs. Hypothesis testing plans address the question of whether independent variables influence dependent variables. The statistical tests of significance used in these experiments are typically two-sided; conclusions are formulated in terms of the presence or absence of an effect of environmental manipulation on behavioral outcomes and changes in behavior.
Estimation plans are similar to hypothesis testing plans in that they appeal to quantitative descriptions of variables, but go beyond simple null hypothesis testing, limited to Sec. arr., using two-sided tests of statistical significance. They are used to examine the subsequent question of how independent variables influence observed outcomes. These experiments focus on quantitative and qualitative descriptions of the nature of the relationships among independent variables. Correlation methods are usually used as statistical procedures for data analysis in these experiments. Basic the emphasis is on defining trust boundaries and standard errors, A the main objective is to evaluate, with max. as accurately as possible, the true values of the dependent variables for all observed values of the independent variables.
Quasi-experimental designs are similar to hypothesis testing designs, except that in such designs the independent variables are either not available for manipulation or are not manipulated in the experiment. These types of plans are quite widely used in empirical research. in psychology and other social sciences. and behavioral sciences, especially for solving applied problems. They belong to the category of research procedures, which go beyond naturalistic observation, but do not reach the more complex and important levels of the other two basic principles. types of experimental plans.
The role of statistical analysis
Psychol. research, empirical or not, is based on Ch. arr. on data obtained from samples. Therefore M. e. And. need to be supplemented by statistical analysis of these sample data so that valid conclusions can be formulated about the results of hypothesis testing.
Empirical testing of hypotheses
The most valuable experiment. plan for conducting empirical research. in psychology and related sciences is a design for testing hypotheses. Therefore, here we should give a definition of “hypothesis”, linked to the methodology of empirical research. An exceptionally precise and concise definition is given by Brown and Ghiselli.
A hypothesis is a statement about factual and conceptual elements and their relationships that goes beyond known facts and accumulated experience in order to achieve better understanding. It is an assumption or a lucky guess containing a condition that has not yet been actually demonstrated, but which deserves investigation.
Empirical confirmation of several. interrelated hypotheses leads to the formulation of a theory. Theories that are invariably confirmed by empirical results of repeated studies. - especially if they are accurately described using mat. equations - inevitably acquire the status of a scientific law. In psychology, however, scientific law is an elusive concept. Most psychol. theories are based on empirical testing of hypotheses, but today there is no psychol. theories that would reach the level of scientific law.
See also Confidence Boundaries, Control Groups