Features of the development of trade in the 17th century. Development of domestic and foreign trade
The 17th century was marked the most important event in the economic life of the country - the formation of an all-Russian market. Certain prerequisites have emerged for this in Russia. As mentioned earlier, the territorial division of labor was becoming more and more noticeable in the country. A number of areas specialized in the production of various industrial products. IN agriculture A certain regional specialization also developed, and agricultural farms began to produce products for sale. In the north-west of Russia they preferred to grow flax for the market, in the south and south-east - bread and beef cattle, near large cities - vegetables and dairy cattle. Even monasteries were engaged in the production of various products for sale: leather, lard, hemp, potash[‡‡‡‡], etc.
All this contributed to strengthening economic ties between regions, the gradual merging of local markets into one, all-Russian one. Besides centralized state encouraged the process of such unification. Left Bank Ukraine, the Volga region, Siberia, and the North Caucasus were gradually drawn into economic ties.
If in the 16th century domestic trade was carried out mainly in small markets, then in the 17th century regular fairs began to appear (from the German Jahrmarkt - annual market). As a rule, they were held at certain times of the year for several days and even weeks, near large monasteries during major church holidays or in the fall, after the end of field work. Merchants from different cities and countries came here, wholesale, large trade and credit transactions were concluded.
All-Russian fairs arose: Makaryevskaya ( Nizhny Novgorod), Svenskaya (Bryansk), Arkhangelskaya, Tikhvinskaya, Irbitskaya, Solvychegodskaya. A special place among shopping centers occupied by Novgorod the Great, which was famous for trade back in the 11th-12th centuries. Thus, the legendary guslar Sadko, who became a merchant, had a real prototype of Sotko Sytin, whose name is mentioned in the Novgorod chronicle of the 12th century, since he built the temple with his own money.
In Novgorod the Great, guest trade was carried out by artel-companies. One of these companies was known since the 13th century and was called “Ivanovo-sto” (after the Church of St. John the Baptist). She had a common gostiny dvor (warehouse of goods), a “gridnitsa” (large chamber for holding meetings). The wax merchants who founded this company were not only engaged in the wax trade, but also actively participated in the political life of the Novgorod Republic. The company was led by an elected headman, who monitored order and the correctness of paperwork. The company had large special scales to check the accuracy of the weight of goods, and small scales were used to weigh bullion. It had its own commercial court headed
with Tysyatsky, who resolved various conflicts. It was difficult to join the Ivanovo artel; for this you had to pay a fee of 50 hryvnia and donate 30 hryvnia of silver to the temple. With this money one could buy a herd of 80 cows. Later, membership became hereditary and was passed on to children if they continued the trading business.
Since the 15th century, the Novgorod merchants Stroganovs have become famous. They were among the first to start salt production in the Urals and traded with the peoples of the North and Siberia. Ivan the Terrible gave the merchant Anika Stroganov control over a huge territory: the Perm land along the Kama to the Urals. With the money of this family, Ermak’s detachment was later equipped to explore Siberia.
But in the 15th-16th centuries the center of trade gradually moved to Moscow. It was in Moscow in the 17th century that the merchant class emerged as a special class of city dwellers, playing an increasingly prominent role in the economic and political life of the country. Particularly eminent merchants (“guests”) stood out here, about 30 people. This honorary title was received from the tsar by those who had a trade turnover of at least 20 thousand rubles per year (or about 200 thousand gold rubles in the price scale of the early 20th century). These merchants were especially close to the kings, carried out important financial assignments in the interests of the treasury, conducted foreign trade on behalf of the king, acted as contractors on important construction projects, collected taxes, etc. They were exempt from paying duties and could buy large land. Among such eminent guests in the XVI- XVII centuries can be attributed to G.L. Nikitnikova, N.A. Sveteshnikov, representatives of the Stroganov, Guryev, Shustov families and others.
Merchants who had less capital were part of two trading corporations - the living room and the cloth "hundred". Their representatives also had great privileges and had elected self-government within the “hundreds,” which were led by “heads” and “elders.” The lowest categories included the “Black Hundreds” and “Slobodas”. This usually included those who produced the products and sold them themselves.
Foreigners who visited Russia in the 15th and 16th centuries were amazed at the scale of trade. They noted the abundance of meat, fish, bread and other products in Moscow markets and their cheapness compared to European prices. They wrote that beef was sold not by weight, but “by eye,” that representatives of all classes were engaged in trade[§§§§], that the government supported trade in every possible way. It is important to note that the Western European “price revolution” that took place in the 16th century also affected Russia. It is known that during the era of great geographical discoveries, great amount cheap gold and silver from America, which led to a sharp depreciation of money and an equally sharp overall growth prices In Russia, connected to Western Europe economic relations, prices also increased by about three to four times by the beginning of the 17th century.
In the 16th-17th centuries in Russia, the process of initial accumulation of capital began precisely in the sphere of trade. Later, merchant capital began to penetrate into the sphere of production, rich merchants bought craft workshops and industrial enterprises. Along with patrimonial and state-owned manufactories, merchant manufactories appeared, which used the labor of free townspeople, quitrent peasants released to latrine trades, and foreign craftsmen were also involved. About 10 thousand free people were employed in various Stroganov industries (salt, potash).
One of the sources of accumulation of merchant capital was the tax farming system, when the government granted rich merchants the right to sell salt, wine and other goods important to the treasury, and to collect tavern and customs duties. Thus, Moscow guests Voronin, Nikitnikov, Gruditsyn and others traded grain, had large iron factories, were ship owners, and were tax farmers for the supply of food and uniforms to the army.
In the 16th-17th centuries, Russia began to more actively develop foreign trade. Even under Vasily III, trade agreements were concluded with Denmark, and under Ivan IV, strong ties were established with England. English merchants were given great privileges in trade, which was carried out practically without duties for both sides. The British founded several trading houses-factories in Vologda, Kholmogory, Moscow, Yaroslavl, Kazan, Astrakhan.
Bilateral Anglo-Russian relations date back to the middle of the 16th century, when English merchants began searching for routes to India and China through the Northern Arctic Ocean. In 1553, three English ships found themselves stuck in the ice of the White Sea near the mouth of the Northern Dvina. Some of the sailors died, and the remnants of the expedition landed on the shore near the village of Kholmogory. The British, led by the commander of one of the ships, Richard Chancellor, were transported to Moscow to the court of Ivan the Terrible, where they were received with great honors.
In 1554, the Moscow Company was founded in London, which carried out not only trade, but also diplomatic relations between the two countries. England exported from Russia canvas, ropes, hemp, ship timber and other goods necessary for equipping its fleet. And for centuries, England occupied a leading place in Russia's foreign trade. And in Moscow, on Varvarka Street, the building of the Old English Court (English Embassy), built in the 16th century, still remains.
Following England on Russian market Holland and France rushed in. Foreign trade was carried out on a large scale with Lithuania, Persia, Bukhara, and Crimea. Russian exports consisted not only of traditional raw materials (timber, furs, honey, wax), but also handicraft products (fur coats, linen canvas, horse saddles, dishes, arrows, knives, metal armor, ropes, potash and much more). Back in the 15th century, the Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin visited India 30 years before the Portuguese Vasco da Gama, lived there for several years, learned foreign languages, strengthened trade ties with eastern countries.
Foreign trade in the 17th century was carried out mainly through two cities: foreign trade with Asian countries went through Astrakhan, and with European countries through Arkhangelsk. Especially great importance had Arkhangelsk, founded in 1584 as sea port, although Russia did not have its own merchant fleet and all cargo traffic was carried out on foreign ships. In the middle of the 17th century, goods worth 17 million rubles were exported abroad annually through this port. gold (at prices of the early 20th century).
The Russian merchants were not yet able to compete in the domestic market with the powerful foreign companies, and therefore it sought to strengthen its monopoly position with the help of the state. Merchants in petitions asked the government to establish protectionist measures to protect domestic interests, and the government largely met them halfway. In 1649, duty-free trade with England was abolished. In 1653, the Trade Charter was introduced, which established higher trade duties on foreign goods. According to the New Trade Charter of 1667, foreign merchants were allowed to conduct only wholesale operations in Russia and only in certain border cities. The charter established great benefits for Russian merchants: the customs duty for them was four times lower than for foreign traders. The Charter in every possible way encouraged a reduction in import operations and an increase in exports in order to attract additional funds to the treasury and create a positive trade balance for Russia, which was achieved at the end of the 17th century. Much of the credit for this belonged to A.L. Ordin-Nashchekin, a Russian statesman under Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. The government, under the influence of Ordyn-Nashchekin, tried to pursue a mercantilist policy, i.e. the policy of every possible enrichment of the state through foreign trade.
However, the possibilities of Russian international economic relations were noticeably hampered by the lack of convenient ice-free ports on the Baltic and Black Seas, so Russia’s search for access to the seas became a vital need at the end of the 17th century.
An important element The formation of the all-Russian market was the creation of a unified monetary system in the country. Until the end of the 15th century, almost all the principalities of Rus' were engaged in minting coins independently - Tver, Ryazan, Nizhny Novgorod, etc. Prince Ivan III began to prohibit the minting of money to all princes who were part of single state. He approved the Moscow money issue. The inscription “Sovereign of All Rus'” appeared on Moscow coins. But the parallel issue of money in Novgorod the Great continued until the time of Ivan IV. His mother Elena Glinskaya, widow of Vasily III, took certain steps towards creating a unified monetary system in 1534. She introduced strict rules for minting coins according to standard samples (weight, design), and violation of these standards was strictly punished. Under Elena Glinskaya, small silver coins were issued, which depicted a horseman with a sword in his hands - sword money. On dengas of larger weight, a horseman-warrior was depicted striking a snake with a spear - spear dengas, which later received the name kopek. This money was irregular shape, the size of a watermelon seed. Smaller coins were also issued - half coins, or U4 kopecks, with the image of a bird, etc. late XVI century, the year of issue was not indicated on the coins. Under Tsar Fyodor Ioannovich, they began to knock out the date “from the creation of the world.” At the beginning of the 17th century, Tsar Vasily Shuisky managed to issue the first Russian gold coins.
nets - ten kopecks and nickels, but they did not last long in circulation, turning into treasures.
And yet the most important factor unstable money circulation There was an acute shortage of precious metals, and above all silver. From the time of Kievan Rus For many centuries foreign coins were used for monetary circulation. In particular, under Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, from 1654 on German and Czech thalers - round silver coins - the sovereign's mark was stamped in the form of a horseman with a spear or a double-headed eagle of the Romanov dynasty. Such coins were called efimok with a sign; they circulated in parallel with Russian coins[*****]. In addition to their independent circulation, small coins were minted from the efimka. From the very beginning, a fixed exchange rate was established: 1 efimok = 64 kopecks, i.e. that is exactly how many kopecks could be minted from one thaler. The actual silver content in one taler was only 40-42 kopecks.
By the middle of the 17th century, for a number of reasons, the state treasury was practically empty. The consequences of the Polish-Swedish intervention and the “Time of Troubles” also affected. For several years in a row there was a large crop failure, and to this we can add the plague epidemic of 1654-1655. Up to 67% of all government spending in the middle of the 17th century went to the maintenance of troops and constant wars: with Sweden (1656-1661) and with Poland (1654-1667).
To cover costs, the government introduced first inferior silver and then, in 1654, copper money with a forced official rate at which a copper penny was equal to a silver penny of the same weight. 4 million rubles of such copper money were issued. This immediately led to a depreciation of money and an increase in prices, since copper is much cheaper than silver. For one silver kopeck, at first they gave 4, and later - 15 copper kopecks. There were double prices for goods in the country. The state paid the servicemen and townspeople with copper, and required them to pay taxes in silver. The peasants refused to sell food with copper money. All this led to a decrease in the standard of living of the population, especially its lower strata, and to the Copper Riot in Moscow in 1662, which was brutally suppressed, and copper coins were withdrawn from circulation.
In the 17th century, the state’s desire to streamline the entire monetary and financial system intensified. This was primarily due to the fact that government spending on the maintenance of the administrative apparatus, the growing army (streltsy army, reiters, dragoons), and the huge royal court were constantly growing.
In 1680, the first state budget was adopted in Russia, where sources of income and expenditure items were indicated in detail. The bulk of the income came from direct taxes from the population. During this period, a census of peasants was carried out and household taxation (from the yard or tax) was established instead of the previous personal tax “from the plow,” a conventional financial unit [†††††]. This step made it possible to increase the number of taxpayers at the expense of slaves and other categories of the population from whom taxes were not previously taken. It should be noted that feudal lords and the clergy, as a rule, did not pay any taxes. Moreover, they also imposed their own taxes on the serfs.
A large item of budget revenue were indirect taxes on salt[‡‡‡‡‡] and other goods, as well as customs duties. A separate source of income was the state's state monopoly - the exclusive right to trade vodka within the country, and outside its borders - bread, potash, hemp, resin, caviar, sable fur, etc. State goods included raw silk brought from Persia. Monopolies were often farmed out, which also supplemented the budget. For example, the richest Astrakhan fishing grounds in the country were in the hands of the treasury, which either farmed them out or rented them out, or managed them themselves through loyal heads or kissers.
But all these sources of income did not cover consumable part, and the state budget remained deficit from year to year, which inevitably raised the question of the need for fundamental reforms in the country.
Questions for review Name the main conditions and stages of the unification of Russian lands. How was the Boyar Duma formed and functioned in the 15th-16th centuries? What is "localism"? What are "orders"? Name the orders known to you and their functions. What is the meaning of the term “feeding”? What do you know about the relationship between the supreme power and the church in the 15th-16th centuries? Tell us about the reforms of Ivan IV. Who are the “service nobles”? On what principles was their service based? What was the Streltsy army like in the 16th-17th centuries? What are “oprichnina” and “zemshchina”? What is their socio-economic essence? How did the process of enslaving the peasants proceed? Explain the meaning of the concepts: “elderly”, “reserved summers”, “prescribed summers”. What categories and on what grounds were peasants divided in the 16th-17th centuries? How did industrial production develop in the 16th-17th centuries? What is "manufacture"? What are “waste fisheries”, what are the reasons for their appearance? How did the formation of the all-Russian market proceed? What are “state monopolies” and what did they consist of? economic sense? Tell us about Russian foreign trade in the 16th-17th centuries. How did protectionism manifest itself in foreign trade? How was the Russian unified monetary system formed? Name the main reasons for the Copper Riot.
XVII century - the most important stage in the development of market trade relations, the beginning of the formation of an all-Russian national market. In the grain trade, Vologda, Vyatka, Veliky Ustyug, and Kungur district acted as important centers in the north; southern cities - Orel and Voronezh, Ostrogozhsk and Korotoyak, Yelets and Belgorod; in the center - Nizhny Novgorod. By the end of the century, a grain market appeared in Siberia. Salt markets were Vologda, Sol Kama, Lower Volga; Nizhny Novgorod served as a transshipment and distribution point.
In the fur trade, a major role was played by Vychegda Salt, which lay on the road from Siberia, Moscow, Arkhangelsk, Svensk Fair near Bryansk, Astrakhan; V
the last third of the century - Nizhny Novgorod and the Makaryevskaya Fair, Yrbit (Irbit Fair) on the border with Siberia.
Flax and hemp were sold through Pskov and Novgorod, Tikhvin and Smolensk; the same goods and canvases - through the Arkhangelsk port. Skins, lard, and meat were traded in large sizes Kazan and Vologda, Yaroslavl and Kungur, iron products - Ustyuzhna Zheleznopolskaya and Tikhvin. A number of cities, primarily Moscow, had trade relations with all or many regions of the country. Quite a few townspeople formed a special “merchant rank”, engaged exclusively in trade. The merchant class - the pre-bourgeoisie - was emerging.
The dominant position in trade was occupied by the townspeople, primarily guests and members of the living room and cloth hundreds. Large traders came from wealthy artisans and peasants. In the trading world, an outstanding role was played by guests from Yaroslavl - Grigory Nikitnikov, Nadya Sveteshnikov, Mikhailo Guryev, Muscovites Vasily Shorin and Evstafiy Filatyev, Dedinovo brothers Vasily and Grigory Shustov (from the village of Dedinova, Kolomensky district), Ustyug residents Vasily Fedotov-Guselnikov, Usov-Grudtsyn , Barefoot, Revyakins, etc. Traded various goods and in many places; trade specialization was poorly developed, capital circulated slowly, free funds and credit were absent, and usury had not yet become a professional occupation. The scattered nature of trade required many agents and intermediaries. Only towards the end of the century specialized trade appeared. For example, the Novgorod Koshkins exported hemp to Sweden, and from there they imported metals.
Retail trade took on a large scale in the cities (in shopping arcades and huts, from trays, benches and peddling). Township small traders walked around the districts with a body filled with various goods (peddlers); Having sold them, they bought canvas, cloth, furs, etc. from the peasants. Buyers emerged from among the peddlers. They connected the peasants with the market.
Foreign trade operations with Western countries were carried out through Arkhangelsk, Novgorod, Pskov, Smolensk, Putivl, Svenskaya Fair. They exported leather and grain, lard and potash, hemp and furs, meat and caviar, linen and bristles, resin and tar, wax and matting, etc. They imported cloth and metals, gunpowder and weapons, pearls and gems, spices and incense, wines and lemons, paints and chemical products (vitriol, alum, ammonia, arsenic, etc.), silk and cotton fabrics, writing paper and lace, etc. Thus, they exported raw materials and semi-finished products, imported products of Western European manufacturing industry and colonial goods. 75% foreign trade turnover gave Arkhangelsk - the only and also inconvenient port connecting Russia with Western Europe. Astrakhan played a leading role in eastern trade. It was followed by the Siberian cities of Tobolsk, Tyumen and Tara. The treasury and private traders conducted transactions with the countries of Central Asia and the Caucasus, Persia and the Mughal Empire in India. Since the end of the 17th century, especially after the conclusion of the Treaty of Nerchinsk (1689), trade relations with China have been developing.
The competition of foreign merchants in the domestic market caused collective protests from less wealthy Russian merchants. In the 20s - 40s, they filed petitions, complaining that they “left their trades and therefore became impoverished and incurred great debts.” They demanded to limit the operations of foreigners, and those who, despite the prohibitions of the Russian authorities, retail trade, expel from the country.
Finally, in 1649, English merchants were banned from trading within the country, and then they were all expelled. The reason in the decree was explained simply and artlessly: the British “killed their sovereign King Charles to death.” A revolution took place in England, and its participants, led by Oliver Cromwell, executed their monarch, which in the eyes of the Russian court was a clearly reprehensible and unforgivable offense.
According to the Customs Charter of 1653, many small customs duties remaining from the time of feudal fragmentation were eliminated in the country. In return, a single ruble duty was introduced - 10 money per ruble, i.e. 5% from the purchase price of goods (1 ruble = 200 money). They took more from foreigners than from Russian merchants. The New Trade Charter of 1667 further strengthened protectionist tendencies in the interests of the Russian commercial and industrial class.
Getting rid of the rule of the Golden Horde and the formation of a unified Russian state contributed to the strengthening of the economy. Internal borders and numerous customs duties between scattered principalities disappeared, which led to an increase in trade. Many city and village trades and “markets” appeared. Here local artisans sold their products, and peasants sold vegetables, meat, and fish.
Strengthening economic ties between separate areas promoted by fairs. They were organized, as a rule, once a year near large shopping centers or monasteries.
The most important product at fairs was bread. They also traded honey, salt, livestock, meat, fish, and other agricultural products. In addition, they brought to the market large quantities goods produced by artisans: dishes, shoes, elegant fabrics for fashionistas and much more.
On western border Russia traded with Poland, Livonia, Hansa, and the Principality of Lithuania; in the south and east - with the Tatar khanates, the Caucasus, Central Asia and the Ottoman Empire.
In 1553, English merchants appeared in the White Sea. Close trade ties were established between Russia and England. In 1556, the Moscow government allowed the British to trade duty-free throughout the country.
In 1584, at the mouth of the Northern Dvina, next to the Michael-Arkhangelsk Monastery, a wooden fortress was built with the adjacent village and pier of Novokholmogory (since 1613 - Arkhangelsk). It was the first major seaport Russian state, through which there was lively trade with England and other countries of Western Europe.
City government and merchant organizations
Elements of self-government were retained in cities. Small traders, artisans, gardeners, people engaged in servicing trade and transport united in the 16th century into hundreds and fifty. But these organizations were not based on a professional (shop) person, as in Western Europe, but a territorial principle. Only large merchants united into special professional organizations- Living room and Cloth hundred. The Living Hundred included metropolitan - Moscow merchants. The Cloth Hundred was originally an organization of provincial merchants. Members of merchant organizations headed the city government.
Elected city officials were in charge of distributing government taxes among hundreds. They were in charge of the improvement of streets and roads; monitored the replenishment of city supplies in case of war; formed a city militia, sent militias to participate in princely campaigns. The authorities were forced to take into account the position of the townspeople.
Features of 16th century trade
In cities, trade was carried out by local residents in shops, and by visiting merchants in guest courtyards. Peasants traded from carts or boats.
The shops overwhelmingly belonged to permanent residents of the city and were distributed among the townspeople, military people, people dependent on the children of the boyars and the clergy. In the 16th century, one person most often owned three shops. In Pskov and Kazan, individuals had up to 10 shops. In this case, it was not the owners who traded, but the inmates.
In terms of their economic power, they occupied a special position trading people Stroganovs. They came from Pomeranian peasants. At the time in question, the clan was headed by Grigory Dmitrievich.
In 1650 there were 24 guests. Since the end of the 16th century, the rank of guest began to be granted with a special Certificate of Grant.
Large merchants concentrated in Moscow. After the fire of 1571 they were forcibly taken there the best people other cities.
At the end of the 16th century, the merchants turned into a class group that combined trade with the function of tax collectors on a farming basis. Farmers were financially responsible for collecting the established amount of taxes.
The main product is bread. The main supplier is the peasantry (otherwise there is nothing to pay taxes and rent). All the benefits from high grain prices went to the small wealthy elite of the peasantry, who had grain reserves and money to buy grain in good years.
Buyers of flax stood out and actively exported it abroad.
The monasteries carried out a large trade in salt, as they had tarhan charters.
An important indicator of the development of crafts and domestic trade was the growth of craft villages, rural markets, rows and fairs. The emergence of trading villages reduced the spatial gap between cities as centers of trade and contributed to the formation of the preconditions for an all-Russian market. Example c. Klementyevo near the Trinity-Sergius Monastery.
The development of domestic trade was hampered by internal trade duties and underdeveloped credit. Loans were given at 20%.
International trade.
Arkhangelsk, built at the mouth of the Dvina in 1584, acquired particular importance. It became the main port for trade with England and Holland. Intermediary trade with the participation of the Dutch facilitated trade with Spain and other countries, with some of which there were no direct regular trade relations. In England, for trade with Russia and Persia, a trading company was founded in 1555, called the Russian or Moscow.
England was the main supplier of metals (copper, lead, gold, silver, tin) and products (needles, pins, locks, knives).
Jewelry imported in the 16th century included glass mirrors.
The import of paper increased.
Trade with foreigners was carried out wholesale. Payment is not in money, but in goods. The activity of foreign trade depended on the initiative of foreign merchants.
The cost of exports from Russia to the West exceeded the cost of imports, so foreigners also imported money.
Crimea became the main intermediary for trade with the East. Russian merchants served as intermediaries for trade in European goods in the east. Eastern merchants were allowed to trade only in the southern border cities.
Trade in yasir decreased. In 1566, it was strictly forbidden to sell captured “Germans” trained in the craft.
On the Russian side, trade with the East involved, first of all, the middle and small merchants. Large merchants like the Stroganovs sent their clerks to the East.
The development of commodity-money relations did not in any way threaten the foundations of feudal land ownership and the principle of external coercion.
The 17th century was the most important stage in the development of market trade relations, the beginning of the formation of an all-Russian national market. In the grain trade, Vologda, Vyatka, Veliky Ustyug, and Kungur district acted as important centers in the north; southern cities - Orel and Voronezh, Ostrogozhsk and Korotoyak, Yelets and Belgorod; in the center - Nizhny Novgorod. By the end of the century, a grain market appeared in Siberia. Salt markets were Vologda, Sol Kama, Lower Volga; Nizhny Novgorod served as a transshipment and distribution point.
In the fur trade, a major role was played by Vychegda Salt, which lay on the road from Siberia, Moscow, Arkhangelsk, Svensk Fair near Bryansk, Astrakhan; V
the last third of the century - Nizhny Novgorod and the Makaryevskaya Fair, Yrbit (Irbit Fair) on the border with Siberia.
Flax and hemp were sold through Pskov and Novgorod, Tikhvin and Smolensk; the same goods and canvases - through the Arkhangelsk port. Leathers, lard, and meat were traded on a large scale in Kazan and Vologda, Yaroslavl and Kungur, and iron products in Ustyuzhna Zheleznopolskaya and Tikhvin. A number of cities, primarily Moscow, had trade relations with all or many regions of the country. Quite a few townspeople formed a special “merchant rank”, engaged exclusively in trade. The merchant class—the pre-bourgeoisie—was emerging.
The dominant position in trade was occupied by the townspeople, primarily guests and members of the living room and cloth hundreds. Large traders came from wealthy artisans and peasants. In the trading world, an outstanding role was played by guests from Yaroslavl - Grigory Nikitnikov, Nadya Sveteshnikov, Mikhailo Guryev, Muscovites Vasily Shorin and Evstafiy Filatyev, Dedinovo brothers Vasily and Grigory Shustov (from the village of Dedinova, Kolomensky district), Ustyug residents Vasily Fedotov-Guselnikov, Usov-Grudtsyn , Barefoot, Revyakins, etc. Traded various goods and in many places; trade specialization was poorly developed, capital circulated slowly, free funds and credit were absent, and usury had not yet become a professional occupation. The scattered nature of trade required many agents and intermediaries. Only towards the end of the century specialized trade appeared. For example, the Novgorod Koshkins exported hemp to Sweden, and from there they imported metals.
Retail trade took on a large scale in the cities (in shopping arcades and huts, from trays, benches and peddling). Township small traders walked around the districts with a body filled with various goods (peddlers); Having sold them, they bought canvas, cloth, furs, etc. from the peasants. Buyers emerged from among the peddlers. They connected the peasants with the market.
Foreign trade operations with Western countries were carried out through Arkhangelsk, Novgorod, Pskov, Smolensk, Putivl, and the Svensk Fair. They exported leather and grain, lard and potash, hemp and furs, meat and caviar, linen and bristles, resin and tar, wax and matting, etc. They imported cloth and metals, gunpowder and weapons, pearls and precious stones, spices and incense, wine and lemons, paints and chemicals (vitriol, alum, ammonia, arsenic, etc.), silk and cotton fabrics, writing paper and lace, etc. Thus, they exported raw materials and semi-finished products, imported products of Western European manufacturing industry and colonial goods. 75% of foreign trade turnover came from Arkhangelsk, the only and also inconvenient port connecting Russia with Western Europe. Astrakhan played a leading role in eastern trade. It was followed by the Siberian cities of Tobolsk, Tyumen and Tara. The treasury and private traders conducted transactions with the countries of Central Asia and the Caucasus, Persia and the Mughal Empire in India. Since the end of the 17th century, especially after the conclusion of the Treaty of Nerchinsk (1689), trade relations with China have been developing.
The competition of foreign merchants in the domestic market caused collective protests from less wealthy Russian merchants. In the 20s - 40s they filed petitions, complaining that they “left their trades and therefore became impoverished and incurred great debts.” They demanded that the operations of foreigners be limited, and those who, despite the prohibitions of the Russian authorities, conducted retail trade, be expelled from the country.
Finally, in 1649, English merchants were banned from trading within the country, and then they were all expelled. The reason in the decree was explained simply and artlessly: the British “killed their sovereign King Charles to death.” A revolution took place in England, and its participants, led by Oliver Cromwell, executed their monarch, which in the eyes of the Russian court was a clearly reprehensible and unforgivable offense.
According to the Customs Charter of 1653, many small customs duties remaining from the time of feudal fragmentation were eliminated in the country. In return, a single ruble duty was introduced - 10 money per ruble, i.e. 5% from the purchase price of goods (1 ruble = 200 money). They took more from foreigners than from Russian merchants. The New Trade Charter of 1667 further strengthened protectionist tendencies in the interests of the Russian commercial and industrial class.
In the XVI - first half of the XVII centuries. A new, capitalist way of life is gradually taking shape. This complex process covers everything more countries. New features have appeared in the development of society:
— the great inventions of the Middle Ages (compass, gunpowder, printing, etc.) are widely introduced into life, many new discoveries appear that help to use the usual sources of energy (water, wind) and its transmission by mechanisms;
— the processing of metals and firearms is improved;
- manufacturing is developing, which is gradually crowding out the workshops;
— trade is growing and the commodity-money economy is strengthening;
— cities that are centers of trade are playing an increasingly important role;
- the composition of the population is changing - the voices of the bourgeoisie are becoming more and more significant in the cities, there are more and more hired workers, the intelligentsia is growing;
- the numerical growth of the bourgeoisie, its accumulation of wealth, the development of its sense of human dignity force this class to fight for its freedom and property;
— entrepreneurship and wage labor are also developing in agriculture, in the countryside, where peasants have become personally free. IN entrepreneurial activity Many nobles are also drawn in.
This social system, which established itself in Western Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries, was later called capitalist by historians.
A rich man who had a profit-making enterprise is a capitalist who owns money and tools of labor, employing free people who have no other means of living than the money received for hired work. This is how it was installed new order, Europe was entering a new time.
Great geographical discoveries
The growth of goods production in Europe and the development of trade were facilitated by the Great Geographical Discoveries. In the 15th century Europe found itself cut off from goods arriving from the East. Fabrics, sugar, dyes, pepper, ginger, cloves and other spices almost stopped reaching European markets. The lack of pepper was especially painful. After all, in the 15th century. it could replace money in trade transactions and could act as a dowry for the bride. For what reason was trade with Asian countries, including India, where it came from, so difficult? most of spices?
In the 15th century The trade routes developed by Europeans to Asia through the Mediterranean Sea were blocked by the strong Ottoman Empire. The spirit of entrepreneurship, the desire to get rich, and faith in human capabilities made the most daring plans feasible. Thus the idea arises of building a western route to India.
The idea itself was not new; it can be found in the books of ancient thinkers. When the search for new routes to India became necessary for Europeans, a plan arose to get to this country by moving west across the Atlantic Ocean (navigators called it the “Sea of Darkness”). The man who began to vigorously pursue the implementation of this project was Christopher Columbus, a native of Genoa. For many years he persuaded King Juan of Portugal, and then the great kings of Spain, Isabella and Ferdinand, to equip an expedition to open new sea routes.
And it happened! On April 17, 1492, the Spanish royal couple signed a treaty with Columbus and allocated money for the expedition. Christopher Columbus had to overcome many difficulties: it was not easy to find sailors who were ready to sail into the unknown, it was difficult to maintain their faith in success during a long voyage. 70 days after the start of the expedition, on October 12, 1492, the sound of a shot was heard from the Pinta caravel - this was a signal. The sailor Rodrigo de Trian saw a fire - it was a fire burning on the shore of an unknown land. The land turned out to be a small island, which Columbus named San Salvador (Holy Savior). The flag of the Spanish kings was hoisted on the island. Then the islands of Haiti and Cuba were discovered. The navigator was sure that this was India, and the inhabitants of the newly discovered lands began to be called Indians.
Then three more expeditions took place, as a result of which Central America and the northern coast of South America were discovered. Until the end of his days, Christopher Columbus believed that he had paved new way to India.
In 1499, Vasco da Gama's expedition returned from India, having sailed from Portugal in 1497. This expedition reached India, rounding the southern tip of Africa. Portuguese merchants rushed east.
In the fall of 1519, an expedition set out from Spain, led by the Portuguese sailor Fernando Magellan. He set out to find a passage to the west, rounding the new continent from the south, which was still called India. A year later, the expedition reached the strait (later it was called the Strait of Magellan) and entered a huge expanse of water. It was an unknown ocean. Since during the entire voyage of Magellan's squadron the sailors did not see any storms, they called the ocean the Pacific. In 1522, the remnants of the squadron returned to Spain. Now it has been proven in practice: the earth is round and, having circled the globe, you can return to the port of departure.
The new continent discovered by Columbus was later called America, because the Italian sailor in the Spanish service, Amerigo Vespucci, having traveled to new lands, proved that this was a new continent, and not part of Asia. These lands began to be called the New World.
Trade Development
Great geographical discoveries opened the doors to new times. Connections between the most distant continents began to expand, world trade. In the XVI - XVII centuries. The growth of cities - centers of trade and business activity - continues.
If we could see the market of the 16th century, the following picture would open before our eyes: a square with several buildings on it, the rest of the space is occupied by shopping arcades. In the crowd are porters, carters, sweepers who earn their living by doing auxiliary work in the market, and, finally, buyers. Their clothing helps to identify which segments of the population they belong to. We see peasants, wealthy townswomen, maids... And here are the market tax collectors. Here everyone, rich or poor, could find goods within their means. There are goods laid out everywhere: pieces of butter, cheese, fish, game, meat, piles of vegetables and fruits. Straw, firewood, hay, wool, flax, and homespun linens are brought from the villages.
As a rule, city bazaars were held once or twice a week, since peasants needed time to prepare products for sale and find free time for travel and city. Gradually, as cities grew, markets began to operate daily.
The proverbs that prevailed at that time speak about the large place the market occupied in the life of the townspeople: “Everything will be sold in the market, except silent caution and honor”, “It is better to have friends in the market than coins in a chest.” By the 17th century includes the construction of covered markets. The largest were built by city authorities in London and Paris.
Shops competed with trade in markets. In large cities there were streets with shops on both sides. They sold everything: meat, game, hardware, luxury goods. How were these shops different from medieval ones? It was not artisans who sold their products there, but professional traders. Contemporaries wrote that “shops are conquering the world” and “devouring” cities. A funny incident happened with the French ambassador in London in 1763 - he was simply “kicked out” of the house he was renting, because they wanted to build a shop on this place, and he complained in a letter about the difficulty of finding suitable housing at a reasonable price, because many houses demolished for the same purpose.
Peddling was also actively practiced. Peddlers could be found on the streets of large European cities. They bustled about in St. Mark's Square in Venice, near the Pont Neuf in Paris, in Cologne, London, Rome... Their mournful cries could be heard from afar: they offered bread, greens, oranges, newspapers, old clothes, coal and much more.
The respectable public was suspicious of such merchants, considering them vagabonds. But one fine day such a peddler, having counted the accumulated money, bought or rented a shop.
You already know about the fairs of the Middle Ages. But in the 17th century. their value begins to fall. With the growth of cities, rare fairs can no longer fully satisfy the needs of the urban population; daily trade was needed.
The development of trade led to an increase in the number of merchant companies, or trading partnerships. The life of the merchants was dangerous; every day they risked their property and even their lives. These dangers pushed the merchants to unite.
At first, such a company was a family partnership, which included close relatives who shared everything among themselves - labor, risk, money. Then such companies began to accept outsiders who were willing to invest labor and money. Members of the company were responsible for the results of its activities with their property. This is how joint stock companies were created.
A sign of the new times was the emergence of monopolies, which violated the customs of the free market. In the 17th century There were already international monopolies. This task was considered very difficult; it required intelligence, strength, and dexterity. The Dutch had the most monopolies.
English companies
In addition to Holland, England was also at the center of world trade; this was one of the consequences of the Great Geographical Discoveries. Large ocean-going sailing ships were crowded at the berths of London, the largest port in England. Overseas trade forced English merchants to unite into trading companies. The number of such companies grew with amazing speed.
In 1600, the East India Company was created. Only she was allowed to import pepper into the country. In 1607, it paid its members 500% of the profit on their invested capital. Cotton could only be imported into the country by members of the Levant Company, which had the exclusive right to trade with the Mediterranean countries. A well-known Moscow company traded with Russia. Bankers and moneylenders, butchers and brewers, noble nobles, right up to the king, all sought to become shareholders of some company. The kings willingly agreed to their creation, since they received huge amounts of money into the treasury for issued patents and became shareholders for free. In addition, many companies took on the responsibility of representing British interests in distant countries.
By the beginning of the 17th century. English trading companies extend their influence over a vast area from Iran to North America, from Sweden to India and Ceylon, are increasingly being introduced into India and America. By 1640, the turnover of English trade was twice as high as its turnover at the beginning of the 17th century.
Exchanges
By the 17th century Almost every trading city had its own stock exchange. According to the definition of contemporaries, a stock exchange is “a meeting place for bankers, merchants, merchants,” stockbrokers1 and bank agents, commission agents and other persons.” Initially, stock exchanges did not have special buildings, being located on streets and squares, but already in the 15th century for this For this purpose, the city authorities began to build special buildings.
All exchanges were similar to each other with a huge crowd of people. In Amsterdam, up to 4,500 people gathered at the stock exchange by noon. One of the largest was the London Stock Exchange. Each merchant considered it his duty to visit the stock exchange every day before noon, where he could make a profitable deal, and from the posted advertisements learn about the arrival and departure of merchant ships. If a reputable merchant does not come to the stock exchange, rumors will spread about the poor state of his affairs.
Of course, there were frequent cases when some people got rich and others went bankrupt through stock speculation. A contemporary wrote: “Herring was sold in advance by a certain date, even before it was caught, grain and other goods - before the grain was ripe or the goods were received.”
Exchanges began to play a leading role in wholesale and international trade, influenced the establishment of the exchange rate of money, contributed to the circulation of securities.
Banks
In the XVI - XVII centuries. Changes are also observed in the banking system. Not only private ones are created, but also state banks. In the 17th century The Amsterdam and English state banks operate. Particularly high banking activity by the 18th century. observed in Amsterdam, London, Paris, Geneva.
Banks gave large loans to merchants and industrialists; states. Bankers had to exercise business caution; banking involved great risk. When a revolution occurred in France in 1789, leading to a change of power, the blow fell on the Dutch banks - their loans disappeared. But the development of trade and industry can no longer do without the participation of banks, and they are gaining strength, growing, and getting richer.
Age of Fuggers
In 1523, Jacob Fugger wrote to the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V: “It is known and quite obvious that your Majesty could not have received the Roman crown without my help.” In fact, Charles V spent 850 thousand guilders to bribe the princes who elected him, two-thirds of which he borrowed from the Fuggers. And the Habsburg wars were fought with the money of this family. Who are they - Fuggers? This is the richest Europe XVI V. merchant family from the city of Augsburg (Germany).
It is known that their ancestors in the 14th century. were masters of the Augsburg weaving workshop, and in addition, they also traded in linen. In the 15th century the family was already famous for its wealth, some men married noblewomen and began to receive noble titles themselves. Fuggers in the 16th century. known as bankers who lent money not only to princes, but also to emperors. The founders of the family's financial power were Raymond and Anton Fugger, contemporaries of Emperor Charles V. He elevated them to the dignity of counts. The Fuggers owned vast lands, were engaged in mining and trade. Many princes wanted to become related to the Fugger family. Judge for yourself how quickly their wealth grew. In 1511, their fortune was estimated at 250 thousand guilders, in 1527 - at 2 million, and in 1546 - at more than 4.5 million guilders.
So, the Fuggers are suppliers of money to the princes and even the Habsburgs, and they also had monetary transactions with the Pope, often collecting church tithes for him and taking part in the trade in indulgences. But the Fuggers were also known for their widespread charity and patronage of scientists and artists. Collections of works of art and libraries, carefully selected by them, also contributed to the fame of this family. It can be said about the Fuggers that in the 16th century. These zealous Catholics, bankers by vocation, held the fate of war and peace in their hands.
Yudovskaya A.Ya., Baranov P.A., Vanyushkina L.M. New story