When did Poland emerge as a state? Xi
In the west - with Germany. In the north, Poland has access to the Baltic Sea.
The population is about 38.6 million people. The southern part of the country is the most densely populated, with the fewest inhabitants in the northwestern and northeastern parts. In addition to the Poles, who constitute the ethnic majority, Kashubians, Germans (1.3%), Ukrainians (0.6%), Belarusians (0.5%), Slovaks, Czechs, Lithuanians, Gypsies, and Jews live in Poland.
The official language is Polish.
Currently Poland is a republic. The state is headed by the president.
The capital is Warsaw.
Brief history
The Slavs were probably the first peoples to settle in the territory now occupied by the Poles. This is evidenced by data from archaeological cultures found in these lands. Archaeological data also indicate that the Slavs had virtually no socio-cultural contacts with other peoples until the 8th century. This explains the fact that the first reliable information about the Western Slavs, in particular about the ancestors of the Poles, dates back to the 8th century. At this time, the Varangians begin to penetrate their territory, and to protect against them the Slavs create small state associations. West Slavic tribes that later formed the Polish nation ( Polana, Wislane, Lubuszany, Slenzan (Silesians), Opolany, Dziadoshan, Lędzic, Mazovshan and others), occupied the territory from the Lower Elbe and Oder in the west to the middle reaches of the Narva, Western Bug, Wieprz and San (right tributaries of the Vistula) in the east. In the south, the territories of the Polish tribes extended to the sources of the Oder, Dunajec, Wisłoka and Vistula, and in the north to the Baltic Sea. In general, this territory corresponds to the modern borders of Poland. The Poles owe their ethnic name to one of the most active tribes - the Polans, who settled along the Warta and Lower Oder rivers and created their own state.For the first time the name Polyan appears at the end of the 10th - beginning of the 11th century in one of the Latin lives, where the Polish prince Boleslav the Brave (992 – 1025) called dux Palanorum, that is, “leader of the glades.” Ancient chronicles report that around 840 the first Polish state was formed by the legendary King Piast, but this is the only evidence that is not confirmed by any other documents. The first historically reliable ruler of Poland was the father of Boleslaw the Brave - Mieszko I of the Piast dynasty (960–992), who in 966 entered into a dynastic marriage with the Czech princess Dubravka and converted to Christianity. The Polish nobility adopted Christianity according to the Roman Catholic model, and then, for some time, the entire Polish people. From the beginning of the 11th century, like many medieval rulers, Mieszko I, and then Boleslav the Brave, pursued a policy of expansion, trying to expand the boundaries of the state in all directions. Poland is trying to spread its power in both Bohemia and Germany, but the main direction of territorial expansion is the northeast and east. Silesia and Pomerania were annexed to Greater Poland in 988, Moravia in 990, and in the first quarter of the 11th century, Polish power was established in the territory from Odra and Nysa to the Dnieper and from the Baltic Sea to the Carpathians. In 1025, Bolesław took the title of king, but after his death, the strengthened feudal nobility opposed the central government, which led to the separation of Mazovia and Pomerania from Poland.
From the 30s of the 12th century, the weakening of the Polish state began, which entered a period of feudal fragmentation, and in the second half of the 12th century, Poland disintegrated, a number of western and northwestern regions came under the rule of the German state.
In the middle of the 13th century, the eastern territories of Poland were devastated by the Tatar-Mongols, the northern territories suffered from raids by the Lithuanians and Prussians. To protect the country, Prince Konrad of Mazovia in 1226 invited the Teutonic knights to the country, who very quickly took a privileged position in the state and conquered the territory of East Prussia. The German language became widespread in the urban environment, and in the west (near the middle Odra) and southwest (in Silesia) the process of complete Germanization of the Polish population was taking place. At the beginning of the 14th century, a new state created by German colonists cut off Poland's access to the Baltic Sea.
The reunification of most of Poland under the rule of one king occurs at the beginning of the 14th century. In 1320 he was crowned on the throne Vladislav Lokotek from Kuyavia, and from that time on a national revival began, which achieved its greatest success during the reign of his son, Casimir III the Great(1333-1370). One of the most significant steps in the development of Polish culture was the creation in 1364 of the University of Krakow, one of the oldest universities in Europe. This intensified Polish scientific thought and contributed to the development of the exact, natural and human sciences.
After the death of Louis I the Great (Louis of Hungary, 1370-1382), his youngest daughter Jadwiga, who married the great Prince of Lithuania Jagiello (Yogaila, or Jagiello). Jagiello converted to Christianity under the name Vladislava (Vladislav II, 1386-1434) and converted the Lithuanian people to it, founding the Jagiellonian dynasty, one of the most powerful in Europe. The territories of Poland and Lithuania are united into a strong state union, and after the defeat of the Teutonic Crusaders at the Battle of Grunwald (1410) (1) this union very quickly gains strength. In the second half of the 15th century, Pomerania and Gdansk were returned to Poland. 
Battle of Grunwald. 16th century engraving
The 16th century became the golden age of Polish culture and statehood. Poland, continuing its policy of expansion and gradually moving to the northeast and east, is becoming one of the largest states in Europe. Poland captures the Baltic Pomerania, Livonia, Warmia, vast areas and Lithuania.Royal power in Poland has never been strong. Already in the 11th century, a powerful layer of local nobility was formed here, which chose the king - a tradition that lasted until the 18th century. The ruler was largely dependent on his entourage and, in fact, could become a puppet in his hands. In 1505 King Alexander adopts a constitution according to which the parliament, consisting of two chambers: the Sejm and the Senate (2), receives equal rights with the monarch in resolving issues relating to the nobility. In 1569, the Union of Lublin was adopted, according to which Lithuania and Poland united into a single state - the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (3). In the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth there is one parliament (Sejm) and the same laws, and one king is elected by the aristocracy. The power of the small landed nobility is strengthened, and the royal power, on the contrary, is weakened even more. Henry of Valois (1573-1574, later to become Henry III of France), elected king of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth after the death of Sigismund II, had to be completely subordinate to the Diet in his decisions. Without the recommendation of parliament, he could not marry, declare war, increase taxes, or elect an heir to the throne; in addition, he was obliged to implement all articles of parliament. During his reign, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth changed from a state with a limited monarchy to an aristocratic parliamentary republic.
If under Sigismund II, Henry of Valois and Stephen Batory, religious tolerance reigned in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, and Poland at some stage became one of the centers of the Reformation, then under Sigismund III Vase(1587-1632), a zealous supporter of Catholicism, the situation is changing. In 1596, to spread Catholicism among the Orthodox population, the Uniate Church was established under the Union of Brest, which, recognizing the primacy of the Pope, continued to use Orthodox rituals.
The greatness of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth is replaced by the weakening of the state, which was weakened by wars with Turkey, the uprising of Ukrainian Cossacks against Poland, and the military actions of the Swedes, who in the second half of the 17th century occupied most of Poland, including Warsaw. As a result of unsuccessful wars with Poland, according to the Truce of Andrusovo (1667), Kyiv and all areas east of the Dnieper were lost. The collapse is also influenced by the position in the Sejm. Since 1652, it has had a provision (liberum veto), according to which any deputy could block a decision he did not like, demand the dissolution of the Sejm and put forward any demands that were to be considered by the new government. This policy is also used by neighboring powers, which repeatedly disrupt the implementation of decisions of the Sejm that are unfavorable to them. In the 17th – 18th centuries, Poland concluded a number of peace treaties with, pursuing the goal of access to the Baltic coast, and acted on the side of the Russians in the Northern War against Sweden. In 1764, the Russian Empress Catherine II sought to elect her favorite king of Poland. Stanisław August Poniatowski(1764-1795), who turned out to be the last king of Poland. Control over Poland became obvious.
In 1772, Prussia and Austria implemented first partition of Poland, which was ratified by the Sejm in 1773. Poland ceded to Austria part of Pomerania and Kuyavia (excluding Gdansk and Torun); Prussia - Galicia, Western Podolia and part of Lesser Poland; eastern Belarus and all lands north of the Western Dvina and east of the Dnieper seceded. A new constitution was established in Poland, which retained the elective monarchy, and a State Council of 36 elected members of the Sejm was created. The division of the country awakened a social movement for reform and national revival. In 1791, the Four-Year Sejm, headed by Stanislaw Malachowski, Ignacy Potocki and Hugo Kollontai, adopted a new constitution, according to which a hereditary monarchy was established in Poland, the principle of liberum veto was abolished, cities received administrative and judicial autonomy, measures were taken preparing the abolition of serfdom and the organization regular army. This constitution was opposed by the magnates who formed the Targowitz Confederation, at the call of which Prussian troops entered Poland.
At the beginning of 1793, Prussia carried out second partition of Poland, according to which Gdansk, Torun, Greater Poland and Mazovia went to Prussia, and most of Lithuania and almost all of Volyn and Podolia went to Russia. The reforms of the Four-Year Sejm were reversed, and the rest of Poland became a puppet state. In 1794, Tadeusz Kościuszko led a popular uprising that ended in defeat. Third partition of Poland, in which Austria participated, was produced in October 1795. Poland as an independent state disappeared from the map of Europe.
Hope for the revival of the state appeared among the Poles after Napoleon I created the Grand Duchy of Warsaw (1807 - 1815) on the territories captured by Prussia during the second and third partitions of Poland. The principality was politically dependent on France. After Napoleon's defeat, the Congress of Vienna (1815) approved the partitions of Poland. At the same time, Krakow was declared a free city-republic under the auspices of the three powers that divided Poland (1815–1848); the western part of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw was transferred to Prussia and became known as the Grand Duchy of Poznan (1815–1846); its other part was declared a monarchy (the so-called Kingdom of Poland) and annexed to. The uprisings of 1830, 1846, 1848, and 1863 were unsuccessful. Emperor Nicholas I abolished the Polish constitution, and the Poles who took part in the uprisings were subjected to repression.
The First World War led to the restoration of Poland as an independent state with access to the Baltic Sea. Austria-Hungary collapsed, and internal political changes occurred in Germany that no longer allowed control of Poland. On January 26, 1919, elections to the Sejm took place, the new composition of which was approved Jozef Piłsudski head of state. By March 1923, as a result of fierce disputes with the Czech Republic, as well as military actions directed against Lithuania and Poland, new borders of Poland were finally established. In the newly created state, a constitution was adopted that approved a republican system, a bicameral parliament (Sejm and Senate) was established, and the equality of citizens before the law was proclaimed. However, such state formation proved to be unsustainable. On May 12, 1926, Józef Piłsudski carried out a military coup and established a “sanitation” reactionary regime in the country, which allowed him to completely control the country. This regime lasted in Poland until the outbreak of World War II.
Even before it began, the fate of Poland was predetermined: its territory was claimed by Germany and the USSR, which on August 23, 1939 concluded a non-aggression pact providing for the division of Poland between them; Even earlier, Franco-Anglo-Soviet negotiations took place in Moscow, during which the Soviet Union demanded the right to occupy the eastern part of the country. On September 1, 1939, Germany attacked Poland from the west, and on September 17, from the east, the USSR. Very soon the country was completely occupied. The Polish government with the remnants of the armed forces fled to Romania. The government in exile was headed by General Wladyslaw Sikorski.
During World War II, perhaps the largest number of concentration camps were located on Polish territory, in which not only prisoners of war, but also Polish Jews were located. In the occupied territory, the Home Army provided strong military resistance to the German troops.
At the Yalta Conference (February 4-11, 1945), Churchill (Great Britain) and Roosevelt (USA) gave official consent to the inclusion of the eastern part of Poland into the USSR. In August 1945, at the Potsdam Conference, it was decided to transfer to Poland the southern part of East Prussia and the German territory east of the Oder and Neisse rivers.
Since the territory of Poland was actually under the control of the USSR, the power of the Communist Party was very quickly established in the country. In 1947, the Sejm elected communist Bolesław Bierut as President of Poland. The process of Stalinization of the state begins, which is associated with repressions directed against objectionable political and religious figures. In accordance with the new Polish constitution, adopted on July 22, 1952, the post of president was abolished. The state began to be headed by the prime minister. Initially, this post was occupied by the same B. Bierut, and since 1954 by Józef Cyrankiewicz.
The events that followed in the USSR after N.S. Khrushchev’s exposure of the personality cult of J.V. Stalin at the 20th Congress of the CPSU had an impact on the political and economic life of Poland. Wladyslaw Gomułka becomes the political leader and seeks some independence from the USSR. However, his reforms were soon reversed.
By the mid-1970s, an economic crisis began, which was accompanied by massive popular unrest. Workers create strike committees that put forward not only economic but also political demands, leave the old state trade unions and join the independent federation of trade unions “Solidarity” created by the strikers, headed by Lech Walesa. Strikes and worker unrest continued until 1981, when, in response to Solidarity's demand for a referendum on the leadership of the Communist Party and relations between Poland and the Soviet Union, the head of state Wojciech Jaruzelski introduces martial law in the country (December 13, 1981). The leaders of Solidarity were arrested, and the strikes that had begun were suppressed. The economic recession continues until 1983, and then industrial and agricultural production in the country begins to recover.
A new rise in the political activity of the people occurred in the late 80s - early 90s of the twentieth century. The union of trade unions "Solidarity" is legalized. In December 1989, the institution of presidential power was restored in Poland. As a result of the elections, Lech Walesa becomes the President of Poland.
The end of the 20th - beginning of the 21st centuries for Poland, as well as for the rest of the Slavic states, is becoming a very difficult period, both politically and economically. The process of decommunization is accompanied by a change in political priorities, liberation from Russian influence, strengthening economic ties with the countries of Eastern and Western Europe, and an orientation toward the policies of the United States and NATO countries.
Brief sketch of culture
On the territory of Poland, archaeologists find ceramic vessels with “ribbon” and “cord” patterns dating back to the Neolithic era; fortified settlements (Biskupin, around 550-400 BC); clay and bronze vessels belonging to the Lusatian culture, remains of Slavic settlements with wooden-earth fortifications (Gdansk, Gniezno, Wroclaw, etc.). However, we can talk about the beginning of the formation of Polish culture proper from the time of the emergence of the Polish state, which apparently occurred in the second half of the 9th - beginning of the 10th century. The intensification of external contacts leads to the rulers realizing the need to change paganism to one of the most influential religions at that time. The Christianization of the country could not completely destroy the previous beliefs of the Poles, but still had a much greater impact on their culture than on the culture of the Eastern Slavs.The Roman-Latin cultural tradition spreads in Poland, but the cults of Saints Cyril and Methodius, as well as their successor Gorazd, also penetrate here through the Czech lands. The first national cult became the cult of St. Wojciech, a Czech priest, a supporter of the coexistence of the Latin and Church Slavonic liturgies among the Slavs, who was killed by the pagan Prussians around 997. 
Along with the adoption of Christianity (966), the construction of stone religious buildings began in Poland (the earliest of them was the chapel-rotunda of the Virgin Mary on the Wawel in Krakow - the second half of the 10th century), in which the Romanesque style that was dominant at that time in Western Europe is very clearly visible. style. The churches built in the 10th – 13th centuries are distinguished by their austere majesty. They represent a three-nave basilica, traditional for the Roman tradition, with monumental towers and perspective portals covered with carved ornaments (Church of St. Andrew in Krakow, Church in Tuma, Church of Mary Magdalene in Wroclaw). The capitals of the interior pillars between the naves in Romanesque buildings are decorated with rich carvings. Builders usually use wickerwork, plant patterns, images of saints, fantastic animals and birds. There are a few Romanesque crypts (4) preserved in Poland (the crypt of St. Leonard in the Wawel Cathedral in Krakow, around 1100), which were not rooted in ancient Polish architecture. In contrast to East Slavic architecture, in the decoration of Polish Christian cathedrals of the 10th – 13th centuries, you can occasionally see sculptures that are characterized by a soft generalization of forms (the portal of the Church of the Virgin Mary in Wroclaw with relief images of the Mother of God and donors, second half of the 12th century). The bronze doors of the Church of the Virgin Mary in Gniezno are a masterpiece of Romanesque sculpture. Cast from bronze in 1175, they are decorated with numerous bas-reliefs - scenes from the life of St. Wojciech.
In the 14th and 15th centuries, the Romanesque style was replaced by Gothic, directed towards the sky. The buildings of this time uniquely refract architectural forms found in Germany, the Czech Republic, and the Netherlands. In the south of Poland, under the influence of Czech art, three-nave basilica churches of stone and brick are being built (the Wawel Cathedral and the Church of the Virgin Mary in Krakow, cathedrals in Wroclaw and Poznan); in the north, under the influence of the Dutch school, hall brick churches were erected (the Church of the Virgin Mary in Gdansk), characterized by a strictly restrained appearance; in eastern Poland the influence of ancient Russian art can be seen (paintings of the castle chapel in Lublin, 1418). The monumental towers of the western facades are usually divided into tiers and topped with tents. However, numerous reconstructions of buildings have led to the fact that the architecture of some cathedrals combines different styles. Thus, the northern tower of the Church of the Virgin Mary in Krakow is crowned with a tall Gothic spire growing from a gilded crown, the southern one is crowned with a low Renaissance helmet. Gothic architecture in Poland is not limited to religious buildings. The wars with the Teutonic Order stimulated fortress construction, and thanks to the development of cities, secular architecture also flourished (city fortifications in Krakow and Warsaw, the Jagiellonian University in Krakow, the town hall in Toruń).
Folk crafts are also receiving new development. Franciscan monks brought from Italy the custom of constructing shopki from paper, cardboard and wood on Christmas Eve - models of the Bethlehem stable where Christ was born. Against the background of the rock, a manger with a figurine of a newborn is placed, next to it are figures of the Mother of God, St. Joseph, the shepherds and three kings who came to worship Jesus. Each master tried to embody the traditional plot in his own way, later other characters began to be included in it, and shops with a secular plot also became widespread. The new art form became very popular in Poland and has survived to this day.
legends, as well as materials from state and church archives, Polish, Czech and Hungarian chronicles, Russian and Lithuanian chronicles, tells about the history of the Poles until 1480. The peculiarity of this scientific treatise is a thorough analysis of written sources and the establishment in Polish society of a sense of pride in its historical past. Historical science also develops in the works of Maciej of Miechow (“On the Two Sarmatias,” 1517), Martin Cromer (“On the Origin and Deeds of the Poles,” 1555), Maciej Stryjkowski(“Chronicles”, 1582), S. Ilovsky (“On the Possibilities of Historical Science”, 1557). These works force contemporaries to take a fresh look at the history of the Slavs and at historical science in general. In the 15th-16th centuries in Poland, philosophy also received significant development. Problems of logic are developed by Polish humanists Grzegorz from Sanok, J. Gurski, A. Burski.
At the beginning of the 17th century, the Baroque style entered the architecture (Church of St. Peter and Paul and Krakow, 1605 - 1619; Jesuit Church in Poznan, Bernardine Church in Krakow - 18th century). Traditionally for this style, buildings are richly decorated with sculptures, elegantly shaped wooden sculptures, and altars are lavishly decorated with carvings. From the end of the 17th to the beginning of the 18th century, the palace and park architecture was influenced by French architecture with a combination of baroque and classicist features (Lazienki in Warsaw). In the 19th century, in cities and villages, residential and commercial buildings were erected in the style of classicism; the pomp and scale are clearly visible in the design of Warsaw squares. At the beginning of the twentieth century, the “modern” style came into fashion. It manifests itself not only in architecture, but also in painting and sculpture.
After the formation of the bourgeois Polish state (1918), the development of art proceeded in a contradictory way. The desire to master the latest achievements of European culture, attempts to create a modern national style and the search for new forms of realism coexisted with formal experimentation.
Poles have made a great contribution to the development of world art, natural sciences and humanities. Many of them have gained worldwide fame: in music, these are Frederic Chopin, Ignacy Paderewski, Karol Szymanowski, Wanda Landowska, Arthur Rubinstein and modern composers Krzysztof Penderecki and Witold Lutoslawski; in literature – Adam Mickiewicz, Juliusz Słowacki, Joseph Conrad (Józef Theodor Konrad Korzeniowski), Bolesław Prus, Stanisław Wyspiański, Jan Kasprowicz, Stanisław Lem and Nobel Prize laureates Wieslawa Szymborska, Czesław Miłosz, Władysław Reymont, Henryk Sienkiewicz; in science - astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus, logician Jan Łukasiewicz, Alfred Korzybski (founder of general semantics), economists Oscar Lange and Mikhail Kalecki, and Nobel laureate Marie Skłodowska-Curie. Polish political figures who influenced the course of European history were Bolesław I, Casimir the Great, Władysław Jagiellon, Jan Sobieski, Adam Czartoryski, Jozef Piłsudski and Lech Walesa.
Notes:
1. Battle of Grunwald - July 15, 1410, encirclement and defeat of the troops of the German Teutonic Order by the Polish-Lithuanian-Russian army under the command of the Polish king Vladislav II Jagiello (Jagiello) near the villages of Grunwalde and Tannenberg. The Battle of Grunwald put a limit to the advance of the Teutonic Order to the East.
2. The small nobility was represented in the Sejm, and the higher clergy and aristocracy were represented in the Senate.
3. Polish Rzecz Pospolita is a “tracing copy” of the Latin expression Res Publica, which literally means “common cause.” Over time, the two words merged into one – Rzeczpospolita meaning “republic”. This designation is preserved in the modern name of the state - Rzeczpospolita Polska.
4. Crypt – (from the Greek kryptē - covered underground passage, hiding place). In medieval Western European architecture, a chapel under a temple (usually under the altar), used as a place for honorary burials.
Literature
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Development of feudal relations. In the U.1-XII centuries. Significant progress was observed in agriculture in the Polish lands. The three-field system has spread everywhere. The area of cultivated land increased due to internal colonization. The peasants, escaping feudal oppression, developed new lands, where, however, they soon fell into the former feudal dependence.
In the 11th century In Poland, feudal relations were already established everywhere. Large secular and ecclesiastical land ownership grew as a result of the feudal lords seizing the lands of personally free communal peasants and through the distribution of princely lands. The middle feudal lords became in the 12th century. from conditional holders of estates to patrimonial owners - hereditary feudal owners.
The growth of large land ownership of feudal lords led to a sharp reduction in the number of free communal peasants. The number of registered peasants in the XII-XIII centuries. grew quickly. The main form of rent in the XI-XIII centuries. there was rent in kind. The farm of a dependent peasant was subject to quitrent in kind. The peasants had to bear numerous duties in favor of the prince. In an effort to increase income, the feudal lords increased the size of peasant duties, which met fierce resistance from the peasants. Feudal immunity expanded. Charters of immunity freed magnates from bearing all or part of the duties in favor of the prince and transferred judicial rights over the population into the hands of the feudal lords. Only important criminal offenses were subject to the jurisdiction of the princely court.
The growth of cities. In the XII-XIII centuries. Cities developed rapidly in Poland, which were already significant centers of crafts and trade at that time. The population of cities increased due to runaway peasants. Urban crafts developed. Technical techniques were improved in the pottery, jewelry, woodworking, foundry and metalworking industries of handicraft production. Based on the growth of specialization, new branches of craft arose. Especially great successes in the 13th century. in Poland the production of bitch has reached. Internal trade grew, exchange between cities and rural areas, and between regions of the country as a whole intensified. Money circulation developed. In foreign trade, connections with Russia, the Czech Republic, and Germany played an important role. Transit trade through Krakow and Wroclaw occupied a significant place. Polish cities in the XI-XII centuries. were dependent on the prince and paid him feudal rent and trade duties (myto). In the 13th century many Polish cities received city law modeled on German law (adapted to Polish conditions). Princes, secular and spiritual feudal lords, trying to increase their income, began to found cities on their lands, granting their population city rights and significant trade privileges.
German colonization and its significance. In order to increase their income, the feudal lords patronized the broad peasant colonization of the country. Significant benefits were provided to migrant peasants. From the 12th century princes and feudal lords began to encourage German rural and urban colonization, which at the turn of the XII-XIII centuries. was especially significant in Silesia and Pomerania. It spread to a lesser extent in Greater and Lesser Poland. German peasant settlers enjoyed special “German rights” in Poland.
Landowners began to transfer Polish peasants to “German law”. At the same time, a uniform regulated order was introduced in money and in kind. Tithes in favor of the church were also regulated. New forms of feudal exploitation, especially money rent, contributed to the rise of productive forces and the growth of cities. German colonization in cities led to the fact that in a number of large centers of Silesia, Greater and Lesser Poland, the top of the urban population - the patriciate - became predominantly German.
The disintegration of Poland into appanages. Based on an alliance with Kievan Rus, Casimir I (1034-1058) began the struggle for the reunification of Polish lands. He managed to subjugate Mazovia and return Silesia. Boleslav II the Bold (1058-1079) sought to continue Casimir's policy. Bolesław II's foreign policy was aimed at achieving Polish independence from the German Empire. In 1076 he was proclaimed king of Poland. But Boleslav II was unable to suppress the speeches of the strengthened secular and spiritual nobility, which was not interested in maintaining a strong central power, which was supported by the Czech Republic and the German Empire. He was forced to flee to Hungary, where he died. Under Bolesław II's successor, Władysław I Herman (1079-1102), Poland began to disintegrate into appanages, entering a period of feudal fragmentation. True, at the beginning of the 12th century. Boleslaw III Wrymouth managed to temporarily restore the political unity of Poland, which was also due to the threat of enslavement hanging over the country from the German Empire.
The appanage system received legal formalization in the so-called Statute of Bolesław III (1138), according to which Poland was divided into appanages between his sons. The statute established. the principle of seniority: the eldest in the clan received supreme power with the title of Grand Duke. The capital was Krakow.
Feudal fragmentation was a natural phenomenon in the development of Poland. And at this time, productive forces continued to develop in agriculture and urban crafts. Economic ties between individual Polish lands grew and strengthened. The Polish people remembered the unity of their land, their ethnic and cultural community.
The period of feudal fragmentation brought difficult trials to the Poles. Politically fragmented Poland was unable to repel the aggression of the German feudal lords and the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars.
Poland's struggle against German feudal aggression in the XII-XIII centuries. Mongol-Tatar invasion. Strife over the princely throne between the sons of Bolesław III coincided with the increased aggression of German feudal lords into the lands of the Polabian-Baltic Slavs and led to dire political consequences for the Polish people.
In 1157, Margrave Albrecht the Bear captured Branibor, an important strategic point near the Polish borders. In the 70s XII century The political subjugation of the Polabian-Baltic Slavs by the German feudal lords was completed. On the occupied territory, the aggressive German principality of Brandenburg was formed, which began an attack on Polish lands. In 1181, Western Pomerania was forced to recognize vassal dependence on the German Empire.
The international position of the Polish lands deteriorated sharply after the appearance of the Teutonic Order in the Baltic States, which in 1226 was invited to Poland by the Masovian prince Conrad to fight the Prussians. The Teutonic Order, exterminating the Prussians with fire and sword, founded a strong state on their land, which was under the protection of the papal throne and the German Empire. In 1237, the Teutonic Order merged with the Order of the Swordsmen, which seized lands in the Eastern Baltic. The strengthening of the Teutonic Order and Brandenburg, whose possessions covered Polish lands on both sides, posed a great danger to Poland.
The situation became even worse as a result of the Mongol-Tatar invasion of Poland. A significant part of Poland was devastated and plundered (1241). In the battle of Lignetsa, the Mongol-Tatars completely defeated the troops of the Silesian-Polish feudal lords. Invasions of the Mongol-Tatars in 1259 and 1287. were accompanied by the same terrible devastation of Polish lands.
Taking advantage of the weakening of Poland due to the raids of the Mongol-Tatars and the growth of feudal fragmentation, the German feudal lords intensified their offensive on Polish lands.
Establishment of the state unity of Poland. The development of productive forces in agriculture and crafts, the strengthening of economic ties between individual regions of the country, and the growth of cities gradually created the economic prerequisites for the unification of Polish lands into a single state. The process of reunification of Polish lands was significantly accelerated by an external danger - the aggression of the Teutonic Order. The unification of the country was supported by the overwhelming majority of Polish society. The creation of a strong central government capable of limiting the arbitrariness of large feudal lords and organizing the protection of Polish borders met the interests of the Polish people.
At the end of the 13th century. The leading role in the struggle for the unification of the country belonged to the Greater Poland princes. In 1295, Przemyslaw II gradually extended his power to all of Poland and annexed Eastern Pomerania to his possessions. He was crowned with the Polish crown, but he had to cede the Krakow inheritance to the Czech king Wenceslas II. In 1296 Przemysław was killed. The struggle for the unification of the Polish lands was continued by the Brest-Kujaw prince Wladyslaw Loketok, who opposed Wenceslas II of Bohemia, who managed to subjugate both Lesser and Greater Poland to his power. After the death of Wenceslas II (1305) and his son Wenceslas III (1309), Loketok took possession of Krakow and Greater Poland. But East Pomerania was captured by the Teutonic Order (1309). In 1320, Wladyslaw Lokietok was crowned in Krakow with the crown of the Polish kings.
Foreign policy of Casimir III. Capture of Galician Rus'. The struggle for the unification of Polish lands in the middle of the 14th century, under King Casimir III (1333-1370), encountered stubborn resistance from the Teutonic Order and the Luxembourg dynasty. In 1335, through the mediation of Hungary, an agreement was concluded with the Luxemburgs in Visegrad, according to which they renounced their claims to the Polish throne, but retained Silesia. In 1343, the order was forced to make some territorial concessions to Poland. However, East Pomerania was not reunited with the Kingdom of Poland. In 1349-1352. Polish feudal lords managed to capture Galician Rus', and in 1366 - part of Volyn.
Socio-economic development of Poland in the 14th century. The political unification of the country contributed to the economic development of Polish lands. In the XIV century. peasants continued to intensively populate forested areas and clear new areas of land, hoping to free themselves from feudal exploitation. However, even in new places, newly settled peasants fell into feudal dependence on large landowners. In the XIV century. The category of personally free peasants almost completely disappeared. The feudal lords transferred the peasants to a uniform quitrent - chinsh, contributed in kind and money, which helped to increase the productivity of the peasants and intensify their economy. The income of the feudal lords grew. In some places, along with chinsh, corvée was also practiced on a small scale.
From the end of the 14th century. in connection with the development of commodity-money relations, property differentiation among foreigners has increased
Poland in the XIV-XV centuries.
these peasant peasants. Some of the Kmets turned into land-poor peasants - country dwellers who had only a small plot of land, a house and a vegetable garden. Increasing feudal exploitation caused energetic resistance from the peasantry, which was expressed primarily in escapes.
In the XIV century. Urban crafts developed in Poland. Silesia (especially the city of Wroclaw) was famous for its weavers. Krakow was a major center for cloth production. The guild organizations that emerged in the previous period became significantly stronger. Polish cities were the scene of fierce social and national struggle.
In the XIV century. Internal trade developed successfully, and trade between city and countryside increased. Fairs were of great importance for strengthening ties between Polish lands. Poland's foreign trade expanded significantly, with consumer goods occupying a significant place in it. Transit trade with the countries of Eastern and Western Europe played an important role. Of particular importance in the 14th century. acquired trade with the Genoese colonies on the Black Sea coast, primarily with Kafa (Feodosia). The coastal cities took an active part in trade along the Baltic Sea.
Economic growth contributed to the development of Polish culture. In the XIII-XIV centuries. city schools teaching in their native language appeared. Of great importance was the opening in 1364 of the university in Krakow, which became the second major scientific center in Central Europe.
The incompleteness of the process of unification of Polish lands. State unification of Polish lands in the 14th century. was incomplete: a sufficiently strong central government did not emerge; Mazovia, Silesia and Pomerania were not yet included in the Polish state (Mazovia, however, recognized the supremacy of the Polish king). Individual Polish lands (voivodships) retained their autonomy, local governments were in the hands of large feudal lords. The political and economic dominance of the possible owners was not undermined. The incompleteness of the process of unification of the Polish lands and the relative weakness of the central royal power had deep internal reasons. By the 14th century In Poland, the prerequisites for the creation of a centralized state have not yet matured. The process of forming a single all-Polish market was just beginning. The centralization of the Polish state was hampered by the position of the Polish landowners and the influential patriciates of the cities. The German patriciate of the largest Polish cities, associated mainly with international transit trade, opposed centralization. Therefore, Polish cities did not play a significant role in the unification of the country, unlike the cities of Russia and a number of Western European countries. The struggle for the unification of Polish lands was also hampered by the eastern policy of the Polish feudal lords, who sought to subjugate the Ukrainian lands. This scattered Poland's forces and weakened it in the face of German aggression. The unification of Polish lands, the development of the economy and culture of the Polish state in the 14th century. demanded legislative reform and codification of feudal law. However, no uniform legislation was drawn up for the entire country. In 1347, separate sets of laws were developed for Lesser Poland - the Wislica Statute and for Greater Poland - the Petrokovsky Statute. These statutes, based on customary law that previously existed in Poland, reflected the political and socio-economic changes that had taken place in the country (primarily the strengthening of the process of enslavement of peasants and the transition to a new form of feudal rent - chinshu). The situation of the peasants worsened significantly. The Wislica and Petrokovsky statutes limited the right of peasant transition.
Economic development of Poland in the 15th century. In the XIV-XV centuries. Handicraft production has achieved significant development. An indicator of the growth of productive forces was the widespread use of energy from falling water. The water wheel was used not only in mills, but also in craft production. In the 15th century in Poland the production of linen and cloth, metal products, and food products increased; The mining industry achieved significant success and salt was mined. The urban population grew. In the cities, the struggle between the German patricians and the bulk of the Polish citizens intensified, the process of Polonization of the German population was underway, and the Polish merchant class developed.
The growth of productive forces also occurred in agriculture. Plow cultivation of the land improved, and internal peasant colonization of the country expanded. The total volume of sown areas in the XIV-XV centuries. increased rapidly. In the 15th century Along with natural rent, money rent received great development, contributing to the growth of productivity of peasant labor. From the second half of the 15th century. Labor rent - corvée - began to grow rapidly, mainly on the estates of church feudal lords.
The development of money rent favored an increase in exchange between city and countryside and the growth of the domestic market. The farms of the peasant and feudal lord were more closely connected with the city market.
At the same time, foreign trade developed. For Poland, especially until the mid-15th century, transit trade between Western Europe and the East was of great importance, in which Polish cities located on the important trade route Wroclaw - Krakow - Lviv - Black Sea actively participated. From the second half of the 15th century. The importance of trade across the Baltic Sea increased sharply. The export of Polish ship timber to the West played an important role. Poland was actively involved in the pan-European market.
The growth of gentry privileges. The economic growth of cities did not lead, however, to a change in the balance of class and political forces in Poland at the end of the 14th-15th centuries. Politically and economically, the most influential part of the urban population was the patriciate, who profited from transit trade and had little interest in the development of the Polish economy itself. He easily established contact with feudal lords who were opponents of strengthening central power.
After the death of King Casimir III (1370), the political influence of magnates sharply increased in Poland. The magnates and gentry achieved a privilege in Kosice (1374), which freed the feudal lords from all duties except military service and a small tax of 2 groschen per dain of land. This laid the foundation for the legal formalization of the class privileges of Polish feudal lords and the limitation of royal power. The political dominance of the magnates caused discontent among the gentry. However, speaking against the magnates, the gentry did not seek to strengthen royal power, believing that the growing class organization was a reliable weapon for suppressing the class resistance of the peasants. The growth of political activity of the gentry was facilitated by the emergence of sejmiks - meetings of the gentry of individual voivodeships to resolve local affairs. At the beginning of the 15th century. sejmiks arose in Greater Poland in the second half of the 15th century. - and in Lesser Poland.
At the end of the 15th century. General diets of the entire kingdom began to be convened, consisting of two chambers - the Senate and the embassy hut. The Senate consisted of magnates and dignitaries, the embassy hut - of the gentry - representatives (ambassadors) of local sejmiks. In Poland, a class monarchy began to take shape, which had a pronounced gentry character.
To achieve their political goals, the gentry created temporary unions - confederations, to which cities and the clergy sometimes joined. At first, these unions had an anti-magnate orientation, but usually they served as a weapon in the struggle for noble privileges.
The gentry was the main support of royal power, but its support was bought at the cost of more and more concessions from the monarchy. In 1454, Casimir IV Jagiellonczyk, in order to enlist the support of the gentry in the war with the order, was forced to issue the Niesza Statutes, which limited royal power. Without the consent of the gentry, the king did not have the right to issue new laws and start a war. To the detriment of the interests of the monarchy and cities, the gentry were allowed to create their own zemstvo courts. The statutes of 1454 were an important stage in the development of the Polish estate monarchy. A feature of this process in Poland was the actual exclusion of cities from participation in representative bodies of government.
Polish-Lithuanian Union. The fight against the Teutonic Order encouraged Polish magnates to seek unification with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which was also subject to attacks by the order. In 1385, the Polish-Lithuanian union was concluded in Kreva. Polish magnates sought the inclusion of Lithuania into the Polish state and the introduction of Catholicism in it. Queen Jadwiga in 1386 married the Lithuanian prince Jagiello, who became the Polish king under the name Władysław II (1386-1434). The union of the two powers was not only a means of defense against German aggression, but also opened up the possibility for Polish feudal lords to exploit the rich Ukrainian lands previously seized by Lithuania. An attempt to completely incorporate Lithuania into Poland met resistance from the feudal lords of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The popular masses resisted the introduction of Catholicism. The opposition was led by Jogaila's cousin Vitovt. The union was dissolved. But in 1401 it was restored while maintaining the state independence of Lithuania.
Battle of Grunwald. In 1409, the “Great War” broke out with the Teutonic Order. The general battle took place on July 15, 1410 near Grunwald, where the flower of the order's troops was completely defeated and destroyed. Despite this victory, the Polish-Lithuanian side did not achieve major results. Nevertheless, the historical significance of the Battle of Grunwald was great. She stopped the aggression of the German feudal lords against Poland, Lithuania and Rus', and undermined the power of the Teutonic Order. With the decline of the order, the forces of German feudal aggression in Central Europe weakened, which made it easier for the Polish people to fight for their national independence. The victory at Grunwald contributed to the growth of the international importance of the Polish state.
Return of the Gdańsk Pomerania. After the election of the Grand Duke of Lithuania Casimir IV Jagiellonczyk (1447-1492) to the Polish throne, the Polish-Lithuanian personal union was restored. During his reign, a new war between Poland and the Teutonic Order began, which lasted 13 years and ended in the victory of Poland. According to the Treaty of Torun in 1466, Poland regained Eastern Pomerania with Chelminsk land and Gdansk and part of Prussia, and access to the Baltic Sea was again obtained. The Teutonic Order recognized itself as a vassal of Poland.
POLAND AND POLES IN
MIDDLE AGES
The Middle Ages in the history of Poland were a creative era, although this period also included such catastrophic events as the collapse of the state after the death of Mieszko II, the Mongol invasions, the loss of Gdansk Pomerania for more than two hundred years and the loss of Silesia. However, positive developments prevailed. It created its own state organization, which it managed to defend in a centuries-long struggle. Its preservation was ensured, first of all, by the ruling dynasty and the Polish church. Over time, a common historical memory was added to the institutional factors for maintaining unity. The guardian of the historical tradition was the political elite, but, thanks to oral traditions, this tradition was also available to other social strata.
During the Middle Ages, the Polish economy developed, agricultural productivity increased significantly, new technologies were mastered, cities appeared, population density more than doubled, and the standard of living increased significantly. Of course, there were fluctuations in the market situation, periods of acceleration and deceleration of growth. During the emergence of the state (X-XI centuries), the burden of its creation fell on the shoulders of the common people, which led to a decrease in living standards and caused a revolt of the dependent population. The decentralization of power that occurred from the middle of the 11th century freed up social initiative and contributed to an increase in labor productivity and expansion of production, the spread of higher forms of economic organization, as well as an increase in the standard of living of most social strata. The era of colonization based on German law became a period of dynamic development. Foreign legal institutions, technologies and capital came to the country. External and internal migration contributed to the emergence of many new settlements. However, the rapid changes resulted in new contradictions and conflicts. More progressive farming methods in villages under German law produced larger harvests and provided their residents with well-being inaccessible to other peasants. The wealth of the merchants, especially in large cities, who participated in foreign trade and possessed significant sums of money, significantly exceeded the funds that local knights and even landowners could have at their disposal. The gradual destruction of the system of princely law deprived the group of officials who once stood at the top of the social and property hierarchy of importance.
The economic recovery of individual regions occurred at different times. In the 9th century. The leaders were the lands of the Vistula, and a century later - the territories of the Polans. Then the center of statehood moved again to Krakow. In the 13th century The restructuring of economic life took place most quickly and intensively in Silesia. From that time on, it surpassed other destinies in population density and number of cities. Mazovia, which did not suffer during the pagan uprising of the 30s of the 11th century, and under Boleslav the Bold and Wladyslaw Herman belonged to the populated and rich regions of the Polish state, during the period of specific fragmentation, on the contrary, lost its position in the 14th–15th centuries . was already noticeably lagging behind other Polish lands. After the loss of Silesia throughout the 14th century. Lesser Poland played a leading role in the economy of the Polish Kingdom. In the 15th century Gdańsk Pomerania was added to it.
Changes in the importance of individual regions can only to a certain extent be explained by internal processes. Poland's international position and the influence of neighboring states and economic regions also played a role. It is necessary to take into account armed actions and the devastation associated with them, as well as economic expansion and population migration. The lag of Mazovia was not least due to the Prussian and Lithuanian raids, but it was also important that this lot remained on the sidelines of colonization based on German law. The rapid development of Lesser Poland in the 13th–14th centuries became possible precisely thanks to colonization, trade, cultural and political relations with Hungary, as well as its intermediary role in the trade of timber and grain in the Vistula basin.
In general, Polish lands in the Middle Ages still lagged behind in their development from the western and southern parts of the continent, which were centers of European culture. This lag was due to its geographical location and the fact that Poland, like other territories of Central-Eastern Europe, only in the 10th century. entered the circle of European civilization. Joining Europe did not lead to stagnation of its own creative forces. The accepted foreign models were adapted to Polish conditions. The Polish state, society and culture not only preserved, but also developed their identity. Until the 14th century, Poland moved along a path similar to that of more developed societies, and gradually reduced the distance between them and itself. In the 15th century it created completely original forms of internal structure and culture, while maintaining and even strengthening ties with the community of Christian Europe.
What was Poland for this community? Its name appeared in sources of foreign origin already at the end of the 10th century. At first it meant only the land of glades, but already at the beginning of the 11th century the entire state of Boleslav the Brave was called this way. However, in the early Middle Ages, the circle of people informed about the existence, position, potential of Poland and the policies of its sovereigns was extremely narrow. People who belonged to the political elite in neighboring states and in such centers of universal power as the imperial and papal court knew about it. One can add a small number of Christian, Muslim and Jewish merchants who knew Poland in connection with their trading activities. The newly converted country attracted the attention of the clergy, primarily German, but also French and Italian. Polish abbeys, Benedictine and later Cistercian and Norbertan, maintained contacts with their order centers. From among the French clergy came the author of the first Polish chronicle, Gallus Anonymous, who wrote at the beginning of the 12th century. The builders of the first Romanesque cathedrals and the creators of sculptures decorating churches came from Germany, Italy and, possibly, France.
In the 13th century information about Poland spread much more widely. Such forms of contacts as dynastic alliances, relations with the apostolic capital, and international trade became more intense. New forms also appeared, in which many people were involved. Colonization on the basis of German law caused an influx of Walloons, Flemings and Germans into the country - they predominated among the settlers. Western knights took part in the fight against the Prussians, after the appearance of the Teutonic Order on the Polish borders. Numerous and very active communities of Franciscans and Dominicans were in contact with the monasteries of other ecclesiastical provinces. Previously rare travels of Poles in the 13th century. have become somewhat more frequent. Polish clergy, though not numerous, studied at universities in Italy and France, thus reaching the main centers of European culture.
They paid attention to Poland in connection with an unusually formidable event, which was the Mongol invasion. Europe had not seen such invasions for several centuries, and the interest in the Mongols was enormous. In addition, there were plans to Christianize them. The mission sent by the pope to the Mongol Khan and led by the Franciscan Giovanni de Plano Carpini (1245–1247) included Benedict the Polyak and a certain monk from Silesia known as de Bridia. (71)
In the XIV–XV centuries. Poland has forever occupied a strong place in the consciousness of Europeans. A special role was played by diplomatic contacts with the papal and imperial courts and the dispute between Poland and the Teutonic Order, brought to the meetings of the Council of Constance. Knightly wanderings still brought the Germans, English and French to the order state, however, Polish knights also became famous at foreign courts. The most famous of them was Zawisza Chorny, who served Sigismund of Luxembourg. Another channel for spreading news about Poland was Baltic trade.
The Christianization of Poland and other countries of Central and Eastern Europe expanded the circle of Christian civilization. But besides this passive role, Poland performed other functions for this community.
Already under Boleslav the Brave, an attempt was made to Christianize the Prussians neighboring Poland. Mission of St. Vojtecha ended with his martyrdom, but it increased the prestige of Poland and gave its rulers the opportunity to achieve the founding of an archbishopric. Renewed attempts to convert the Prussians in the 12th century ended in failure, and the German rulers took advantage of the benefits of converting the population of Western Pomerania. Only at the end of the Middle Ages did the attractiveness of the Polish state structure, the way of life of its population, as well as its intellectual and political potential prove sufficient for the successful Christianization of Lithuania. Thus Poland fulfilled its duty in the expansion of Christian civilization. Later, scientists of the Krakow Academy, rejecting violence and polemicizing with the Teutonic Order, referred to the right of individual peoples to decide their own fate. This approach was based on the principle of tolerance. The creation of a model of a state that is tolerant towards other confessional, religious and ethnic groups, which was not always clear to representatives of other Christian societies, became an important contribution of Poland to European culture.
For other countries of the continent, medieval Poland acted for a long time as a country borrowing ideas, technologies and organizational models. In addition, it was one of those places where migration from Western countries flowed. However, as the state, economy and culture developed, Poland itself took over the baton in the dissemination of new ideas. Moreover, it itself began to generate new ideas, and also became the country from which news about the east of Europe came to the West. In the 15th century Poland already represented a key element of the political system of Central and Eastern Europe, necessary for its functioning and development, and this was taken into account at the pan-European level.
How did the Poles themselves evaluate their political and cultural community? What was their consciousness, what connections were most important to them? Medieval man lived in small and self-sufficient local communities, rural and urban, often coinciding with the boundaries of a single parish and the territory covered by the activities of the local market. In addition to them, however, regional communities gradually emerged that corresponded to the destinies of the period of fragmentation, as well as connections at a higher level - state and national. At first the scope of these latter was quite narrow. Those whose activities were not limited to local boundaries, but embraced the entire state - in the political, ecclesiastical or commercial fields - remembered their state and national affiliation.
In the X–XI centuries. The Polish state created an organizational and territorial framework in which tribal groups similar in language and culture found themselves. Other groups, no less close, which remained outside the Piast state (as the population of Pomerania), did not finally become part of the national community that emerged later. At that time, the cultural and linguistic differences between the Polish and Czech tribes were no greater than the differences between the Polans and the Vistulas. But the presence of their own states led to the gradual formation of two different peoples. During the period of specific fragmentation, national ties began to prevail over state ties. They were symbolized by a common dynasty, a common territory, the name “Poland”, which applied to all appanage principalities, a single ecclesiastical province, and the general Polish cults of Sts. Vojtech and Stanislav and the similarity of legal practice in all principalities. The centuries-old tradition of its own, centralized statehood and common history were of great importance. The popularity of the chronicle of Vincent Kadlubek, who glorified the deeds and virtues of the Poles, is the most striking evidence of their pride in their own past. This past, however, was carried far into the depths of centuries, into the pre-state era, into mythical times, retelling the legends about Krak, Wanda, and later about Lech and other glorious ancestors. The term natio identified people of common origin and attributed this trait to the Polish community. The term was also used gens, keeping in mind the commonality of the language. These two traits characterized not only the nationally conscious elite, but also other Poles. Thus, the circle of groups conscious of their national identity remained open to those who, thanks to advancement on the social ladder and cultural development, moved into it from strata that did not have such a consciousness and did not feel the need for a sense of national community.
Linguistic criteria, less significant in the 10th–11th centuries, when groups of Western Slavs differed little from each other, became more prominent in the 13th century and played a large role in Poland. During this period, there was a sense of danger to indigenous cultural values associated with the actions of foreign invaders and colonization based on German law. The peak of clashes on ethnic grounds occurred at the turn of the XIII-XIV centuries, and their source was, in addition to political and economic activities, the question of the use of the Polish language during sermons, which was required by the statutes of the synod of 1285. The mandatory use of the language of parishioners by clergy had a great influence for the development of the Polish literary language. Even earlier, the language of the ruling elite emerged, uniform for the entire territory of the state and including terms unknown in the tribal era from the sphere of public administration. Owning it became one of the signs of belonging to the ruling group. Explaining the truths of faith in Polish and concern for their unambiguity forced the church to develop a set of Polish terminology that was used throughout the Polish province. The oldest monuments of the Polish language include the one created in the 13th century. the song “Mother of God” and the “Świętokrzyz Sermons” recorded at the beginning of the 14th century.
XIV century became a period of strengthening of national feeling in wide circles of Polish society, which was a consequence of an external threat and, above all, wars with the Teutonic Order. Unusual evidence of the state of self-awareness of the Poles of that time, representing various social strata, is the testimony of witnesses at the Polish Order trials. They referred to the belonging of Gdansk Pomerania to the Kingdom of Poland, appealing to the history of this land, dynastic rights, and the unity of the church organization. They also said that “all people know about this so much that... no tricks will allow one to hide the facts.” These witnesses were appanage princes, bishops, landowners, church rectors, minor knights and townspeople.
In the XIV century. the conditions for the formation of the Polish people changed radically. On the one hand, more than a third of the Polish-speaking population ended up outside the united kingdom. On the other hand, this kingdom itself was not ethnically homogeneous, since along with the Poles, Germans, Rusyns, Jews and people who spoke other languages lived in it. The situation became even more complicated after the union with Lithuania, and in the 15th century - after the return of Gdansk Pomerania. However, under conditions of tolerance, various ethnic and religious groups coexisted quite harmoniously with each other. The national Polish identity, which appealed to a common origin, language and customs, was superimposed on the consciousness of statehood, which connected the inhabitants of Lithuania and the Crown, who belonged to different ethnic groups. It was (or could be) inherent equally to the Germans from Torun, the Rusyns from Volhynia, the Poles from Greater Poland or the Jews from Krakow. State affiliation sometimes bound these people more strongly than ethnic consciousness, as evidenced by the efforts of the German townspeople of Gdansk, Torun and Elbląg to incorporate Prussia into Poland. The conflicts of Poland and Lithuania with the Teutonic Order were also not national, but interstate in nature.
This did not at all lead to the withering away of local and regional ties. Everyone felt like a member of their own small community, and the majority still did not know connections at a higher level and did not need them. However, those who wished to go beyond the scope of local issues in their activities - whether it was a nobleman involved in politics, or a cleric who participated in the life of his diocese and the Polish province, or a petty knight going to war, or a merchant engaged in interregional and international trade, or a peasant looking for a better life - they all had to deal with people living in the same state of a different language, different culture, religion. Thanks to this, in the 15th century, along with tolerance towards other cultures and religions, Poles developed an increasingly strong understanding of the uniqueness of their own culture. Thus, the growth of national self-awareness occurred, which is not at all a paradox, during the period of the creation of a multinational state.
The 15th century was the time of true prosperity for Poland. In the field of international relations, he was associated with victorious wars and the successes of dynastic politics; in domestic politics - with the expansion of the circle of persons participating in government. A specific feature was the large number of the knightly class and the equality of its members. All of them received privileges that recognized their personal and property inviolability.
Approximately until the middle of the 15th century. the class character of the state contributed to the spread of consciousness of statehood among the lower classes. However, in subsequent decades, when the privileges for knighthood increasingly upset the inter-class balance, the political communitas began to turn more and more into a gentry. This gave rise to quite complex processes. On the one hand, unprivileged groups whose activities were limited to purely local issues were gradually squeezed out of the political community. On the other hand, gentry of non-Polish origin were included in this community on the basis of class and state connections. The estate state turned into a noble state.
Polish culture, as well as economics and politics, experienced both waxing and waning activity during the Middle Ages. Our knowledge about the cultural achievements of that period is incomplete, since, first of all, works of Latin, book culture have been preserved and known, while works of folk culture based on oral tradition have been lost.
The art of the early Middle Ages was of an elitist nature. The few monuments of Romanesque art that have reached us, the buildings and sculpture associated with them resemble the best European examples. The chronicles of Gall Anonymus and Vincent Kadlubek were also not inferior to modern foreign works. The patronage of artists and writers was provided by the princely court, and from the 12th century, also by the courts of bishops and representatives of the highest secular nobility. In this environment, the first Polish knightly epic arose - “The Song of the Deeds of Piotr Włostowicz”, the so-called "Carmen Mauri". (72) A similar story, based on literary plots known in Europe, but adapted to Polish realities - the story of Walter of Tyniec and Wisław of Wislica - appeared on the pages of a book created in the 14th century. "Greater Poland Chronicle". These works were often retold orally, possibly in Polish, thanks to which the Poles learned the art of gracefully expressing their thoughts and describing various events.
At the beginning of the 13th century, beautiful works of Romanesque art continued to be created, but in the following decades there were some changes. The first Gothic churches had already begun to be erected in large cities, but in the provincial centers the Romanesque style still dominated, and the already mastered designs were repeated every now and then. The spread of art and education was achieved at the cost of a noticeable decline in their level. This process continued in the 14th century, when Gothic finally reached the provinces. But even in the most outstanding works that emerged in the first half of this century, the imitation of old-fashioned Gothic models from neighboring countries is striking. The best works include the tombstones of rulers. The first of these was the Silesian tombstone of Henryk IV Probus, later the tombstones of Władysław Łokietek and Casimir the Great appeared in Wawel Cathedral. In the second half of the 14th century. projects have become more ambitious. These include the original two-nave churches built by the kings. An important sign of increased cultural demands was the founding of the Krakow Academy.
A long period of strengthening the foundations of culture, developing a network of parish education and improving the Polish language brought magnificent results in the 15th century. Polish Gothic art in the field of sacred and secular architecture, as well as in sculpture, painting, wood carving, and jewelry reached a high artistic level, ceasing to be an old-fashioned imitation of foreign works. Its symbol was the altar dedicated to the Virgin Mary from the parish church in Krakow, created by the Krakow and Nuremberg guild master Wit Stosz (Stwosz). Along with such perfect works, many other altars, sculptures and frescoes appeared. These works, among other things, performed a didactic function, introducing believers to the truths of faith through artistic images. Hymns, church music and liturgical drama played a similar role. This new art was closer to man: against the well-known background of medieval everyday life, scenes filled with lyricism were depicted from the history of the Holy Family, the torment of Christ, and the suffering of the Mother of God. It both shaped and expressed the views of the people of that time. The fact that this movement, especially in Lesser Poland and Silesia, was influenced by German, Czech and Hungarian, did not at all deprive it of its originality and typically Polish features. There were many images of local saints, most notably St. Stanislav and St. Jadwiga of Silesia, as well as the founders of churches and monasteries. Gothic funerary art reached its peak in the stunningly expressive tombstone of Casimir Jagiellon, a masterpiece by Wit Stosz (Stwosz).
The patronage given to artists during the Jagiellonian era made it possible to add a new element to the prevailing aesthetic models. They became frescoes in the Russian-Byzantine style. On the recommendation of Władysław Jagiello (Jagiello), they decorated the Gothic chapel in Lublin Castle; later, similar paintings appeared in Sandomierz, Wislice, Gniezno and Wawel Castle. Their creators had to adapt the figurative system of Eastern Christians to the internal layout of Gothic buildings. As a result of the confrontation and interaction of such dissimilar styles, unprecedented works were born. The famous iconographic image of the Mother of God of Czestochowa experienced Byzantine influence. However, the inherent sacred severity of the image was somewhat smoothed out after the icon was in the 15th century. rewritten again (it was damaged during the Hussite Wars). Thus, already in the 15th century, the synthesis of Eastern and Western models became one of the remarkable features of Polish art.
Patronage of the arts by kings exalted state power, patronage of bishops reminded of the place of the church in Christian society, patronage of rulers and knighthood contributed to the glorification of the families of the founders of churches and monasteries. In the 15th century The townspeople also began to patronize the arts, which played a significant role in the second half of the century. The townspeople, who, like the rulers and knights, imitated the style of royal temples and monasteries, seemed to declare their support for the policies of the rulers. However, as far as sculpture, painting and decoration are concerned, it was a completely independent direction, firmly connected with the environment of the urban patriciate, guilds and religious brotherhoods.
Artistically, the art of Poland belonged to the wider circle of art in Central Europe. Moreover, if in the XIV century. While the main motifs were borrowed from the Czech Republic, Hungary, Austria and East Germany, in the 15th century local features began to predominate in the work of Polish artists. This gave patrons a legitimate sense of pride and satisfied their ambitions. A new phenomenon in this era was the influence on the art of Rus'; at the same time, the Polish side itself was inspired by Russian models, as a result of which, as already noted, a synthesis of two directions took place.
Literature of the 15th century kept up with the fine arts. Genre diversity, the increasingly frequent use of the Polish language, the expansion of the circle of authors - all this had its source in an increase in the general level of culture, the growth of national and state self-awareness and the desire to express these feelings. The most important role in this process was played by the spread of education at all levels - from parish schools to the Krakow Academy. The treatises of Krakow professors helped determine the directions of foreign policy and develop methods of diplomacy. In addition to studying philosophy, law and linguistics, the academy conducted research in the fields of mathematics and astronomy. In the second half of the 15th century, the influence of Italian humanism was already felt in Krakow, which was promoted here by Callimachus, a poet, historian and diplomat. An important center of Polish humanism was the court of the Archbishop of Lwów, Grzegorz of Sanok.
Throughout the 15th century. More than 17 thousand students enrolled in the Krakow Academy, including 12 thousand subjects of the Crown. At least about a quarter of them received a bachelor's degree. Graduates and former students became teachers at lower-level educational institutions, some became employees of the royal, episcopal, Moscow and city offices. The number of literate people has increased significantly. Among the intellectual elite, their own libraries appeared, complementing the book collections at cathedrals and monasteries. A significant part of the knights and townspeople could read and write, and in addition, a certain percentage of peasant children who wanted to improve their social status. These people were the creators and consumers of a much larger number of literary works than in previous centuries. In 1473, the first printing house appeared in Krakow.
Of the works in Latin, the most outstanding achievement was the chronicle of Jan Dlugosz, which described the history of Poland from legendary times to the modern author of the second half of the 15th century. The chronicle was not the history of a dynasty, but the history of the state and the Polish people. The author viewed Poland and the Poles as a state community bound by a single structure and a common past. An appeal to history was supposed to serve urgent needs - the development of all-Polish state patriotism, replacing local patriotism. The idea of Poland as a single whole was served by an excellent geographical description, which was an introduction to the chronicle. Dlugosz's thinking in state categories did not conflict with the sense of ethnic and linguistic community of the Poles and the idea of the unity of their historical territory. Therefore, he extremely regretted the loss of Silesia and rejoiced at the return of Gdansk Pomerania.
Although Latin remained the language of science, historiography and most literary works, in the 15th century. The Polish language played an increasingly important role. For centuries, songs, poems, legends and stories have been passed down orally. Some of them were recorded already at the end of the 13th–14th centuries. In the 15th century their number increased, although it still remained small. Nevertheless, these works indicate the formation of the Polish literary language at the end of the Middle Ages. Writers who cared about the grace and beauty of the language gave it a normative form and sought to cleanse it of foreign layers. The origin of this language remains controversial. It is based on either the Greater Poland or Lesser Poland dialect, but there is no doubt that already in the 15th century. it was this language that was used throughout Poland.
So, at the end of the Middle Ages, Polish culture reached significant maturity. The national identity of the political elite has emerged; a stronger sense of connection with the state, which included various ethnic groups; the principle of internal religious tolerance and law and order took shape; guarantees appeared for the participation of a significant part of society in governing the country. There is no noticeable gap between the 15th century, which was so creative in many areas, and the “golden” 16th century. Before us, rather, is a continuous line of ascending development. Without the achievements of the late Middle Ages, the flourishing of the Polish Renaissance would have been simply impossible - just as without the socio-political transformation of the 15th century. the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth would not have been able to arise. This century laid a solid foundation for the 16th century, the most brilliant period in Polish history.
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The history of the country is closely connected with the general history of Europe and with the events that have taken place on the continent over the last millennium.
Ancient history of Poland
In ancient times, Germans, Goths, and Slavs lived on these lands. Over time, the Slavic tribes began to unite, which ultimately led to the formation of Poland in the 9th century. The center of the then state was the city of Gniezno. In 966, Christianity of the Catholic rite was adopted. In 1320, the city of Krakow became the political center. In the fourteenth century Galicia was annexed. In 1385, after the conclusion of the Union of Krevo, the united Letov-Polish state arose, and Catholicism began to spread in Lithuania and Western Russian lands.
History of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
1569 is the date of the conclusion of the Union of Lublin. As a result of this event, the state of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was formed. The Kingdom was a confederation of the Principality of Lithuania and Poland, headed by a king elected by the Sejm. In 1648, an uprising began under the leadership of Bohdan Khmelnytsky, and later, from 1654 to 1667, a war took place between Russia and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. These events led to the weakening of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and to its loss of Kyiv and the lands it owned on the left bank of the Dnieper. The further gradual decline of the kingdom led, at the end of the eighteenth century, to three partitions of Poland. The country was divided between Prussia, Austria and Russia.
Period without independence
After Napoleon defeated Prussia, the Duchy of Warsaw was created on the part of Poland that belonged to Prussia. After the defeat of Napoleon, another division of the country was carried out. Her fate was decided at the Congress of Vienna. It was assumed that the Polish lands would be granted autonomy in Prussia, Austria and Russia. As a result, it so happened that autonomy was given only by the Russian Empire, as a result of which the autonomous Kingdom of Poland was formed within Russia.
Recent history of Poland
In 1918, the independence of Poland was declared. The first head of state after independence was Józew Piłsudski. From 1919 to 1921, the newly formed state waged war with the Soviet Union. The result of the war was the signing of a peace treaty in Riga. This treaty determined the boundaries between the countries. Western Belarusian and Western Ukrainian lands were transferred to Poland. In 1939, the country was occupied by German troops, and in the same year, Western Ukrainian and Western Belarusian lands were ceded to the USSR. Poland was liberated from Germany by the Soviet Union. In 1952, the country received the name Polish People's Republic, and in 1955 it became a member of the Warsaw Pact. In 1989, free elections were held in the country. Reforms began in the republic. In 1999, the state became a member of NATO, and in 2004 it joined the European Union.
The history of each country is shrouded in secrets, beliefs and legends. The history of Poland was no exception. In its development, Poland has experienced many ups and downs. Several times it fell into the occupation of other countries, was barbarously divided, which led to devastation and chaos, but despite this, Poland, like a phoenix, always rose from the ashes and became even stronger. Today Poland is one of the most developed European countries, with a rich culture, economy and history.
The history of Poland dates back to the 6th century. Legend says that there once lived three brothers, and their names were Lech, Czech and Russ. They wandered with their tribes through various territories and finally found a cozy place that stretched between the rivers called the Vistula and the Dnieper. Towering above all this beauty was a large and ancient oak tree, on which was an eagle’s nest. Here Lech decided to found the city of Gniezno. And the eagle, from which it all began, began to sit on the coat of arms of the founded state. The brothers went on to seek their happiness. And so two more states were founded: the Czech Republic in the south, and Rus' in the east.
The first documented memories of Poland date back to 843. The author, who was nicknamed the Bavarian Geographer, described the tribal settlement of the Lechites, who lived in the territory between the Vistula and Odra. It had its own language and culture. And it was not subordinate to any neighboring state. This territory was remote from the commercial and cultural centers of Europe, which for a long time kept it hidden from the onslaught of nomads and conquerors. In the 9th century, several large tribes emerged from the Lechites:
- Polyana - established their settlement in the territory that was later called Greater Poland. The main centers were Gniezno and Poznan;
- Vistula - with its center in Krakow and Wislicia. This settlement was called Lesser Poland;
- Mazovszane – center in Płock;
- Kujawians, or, as the Goplians were also called, in Kruszwitz;
- Ślęzyany – center of Wrocław.
The tribes could boast of a clear hierarchical structure and primitive state foundations. The territory where the tribes lived was called “opole”. It was ruled by elders - people from the most ancient families. In the center of each “opole” there was a “grad” - a fortification that protected people from bad weather and enemies. The elders sat hierarchically at the highest level of the population, they had their own retinue and security. All issues were resolved at a meeting of men - “veche”. Such a system shows that even in times of tribal relations, the history of Poland developed in a progressive and civilized manner.
The most developed and powerful of all the tribes was the Vistula tribe. Situated in the Upper Vistula basin, they had large and fertile lands. The center was Krakow, which was connected by trade routes with Russia and Prague. Such comfortable living conditions attracted more and more people, and soon the Vistula became the largest tribe, with developed external and political contacts. It is generally accepted that they already had their own “prince sitting on the Vistula.”
Unfortunately, almost no information has survived about the ancient princes. We know only about one prince of Polyan, named Popel, who sat in the city of Gnezdo. The prince was not very good and fair, and for his actions he received what he deserved; he was first overthrown, and then expelled from everyone. The throne was occupied by a simple hard worker Semovit, the son of the plowman Piast and the woman Repka. He ruled with dignity. Together with him, two more princes sat in power - Lestko and Semomysl. They united various neighboring tribes under their rule. The conquered cities were ruled by their governors. They also built new castles and fortifications for defense. The prince had a developed squad and thereby kept the tribes in obedience. Prince Semovit prepared such a good bridgehead for his son, the great and just first ruler of Poland, Meshko I.
Mieszko I sat on the throne from 960 to 992. During his reign, the history of Poland underwent a number of radical changes. He doubled his territories by conquering Gdańsk Pomerania, Western Pomerania, Silesia and the Vistula lands. He turned them into rich territories, both demographically and economically. The number of his squad was several thousand, which helped restrain the tribes from uprisings. In his state, Mieszko I introduced a tax system for peasants. Most often these were food and agricultural products. Sometimes taxes were paid in the form of services: construction, crafts, etc. This helped to upset the state and prevent people from giving away their last piece of bread. This method suited both the prince and the population. The ruler also had monopoly rights - “regalia” for increasingly significant and profitable areas of the economy, for example, coinage, mining of precious metals, market fees, and fees from beaver hunting. The prince was the sole ruler of the country, he was surrounded by a retinue and several military leaders who assisted in state affairs. Power was transferred according to the principle of “primogeniture” and within the ranks of one dynasty. With his reforms, Mieszko I won the title of founder of the Polish state, with a developed economy and defense capability. His marriage to Princess Dobrava from the Czech Republic and the holding of this ceremony according to the Catholic rite became the impetus for the adoption of Christianity by a once pagan state. This marked the beginning of Poland's acceptance by Christian Europe.
Boleslav the Brave After the death of Meshko I, his son Boleslav (967-1025) ascended the throne. For his fighting power and courage in defending his country, he received the nickname Brave. He was one of the smartest and most inventive politicians. During his reign, the country expanded its possessions and significantly strengthened its position on the world map. At the beginning of his journey, he was actively involved in various missions to introduce Christianity and his power into the territories occupied by the Prussians. They were peaceful in nature and in 996 he sent Bishop Adalbert, in Poland he was called Wojciech Slawnikowiec, to the territories controlled by the Prussians to preach Christianity. In Poland he was called Wojciech Slawnikowiec. A year later he was killed, cut into several pieces. To ransom his body, the prince paid as much gold as the bishop weighed. The Pope heard this news and canonized Bishop Adalbert, who over the years became the heavenly protector of Poland.
After failed peace missions, Bolesław began to annex territories using fire and weapons. He increased the size of his squad to 3,900 mounted soldiers and 13,000 infantry, turning his army into one of the largest and most powerful. The desire to win led to ten years of problems for Poland with a state like Germany. In 1002, Boleslav seized the territories that were under the control of Henry II. Also, 1003-1004 was marked by the seizure of territories that belonged to the Czech Republic, Moravia and a small part of Slovakia. In 1018, the Kiev throne was occupied by his son-in-law Svyatopolk. True, he was soon overthrown by the Russian prince Yaroslav the Wise. Boleslav signed an agreement with him guaranteeing non-aggression, since he considered him a good and smart ruler. Another path to diplomatic resolution of conflicts was the Gnieznay Congress (1000). This was Boleslaw's meeting with the German ruler Otto III, during a pilgrimage to the tomb of the holy Bishop Wojciech. At this congress, Otto III nicknamed Boleslav the Brave his Brother and Partner of the Empire. He also placed a diadem on his head. In turn, Boleslav presented the German ruler with the brush of the holy bishop. This union led to the creation of an archbishopric in the city of Gniezno and bishoprics in several cities, namely Krakow, Wroclaw, Kolobrzeg. Bolesław the Brave, through his efforts, developed the policy begun by his father to promote Christianity in Poland. Such recognition from Otto III and later the Pope led to the fact that on April 18, 1025, Boleslaw the Brave was crowned and became the first King of Poland. Boleslav did not enjoy the title for a long time and died a year later. But the memory of him as a good ruler lives on today.
Despite the fact that power in Poland was passed from father to eldest son, Boleslav the Brave bequeathed the throne to his favorite - Mieszko II (1025-1034), and not Besprima. Mieszko II did not distinguish himself as a good ruler even after several high-profile defeats. They led to Mieszko II renouncing the royal title and dividing the appanage lands between his younger brother Otto and his close relative Dietrich. Although until the end of his life he was still able to reunite all the lands, he failed to achieve the former power for the country.
The destroyed lands of Poland and feudal fragmentation, this is what Mieszko II’s eldest son, Casimir, who later received the nickname “Restorer” (1038-1050), inherited from his father. He established his residence in Kruszwitz and this became the center of defensive missions against the Czech king, who wanted to steal the relics of Bishop Adalbert. Casimir started the war of liberation. The first to become his enemy was Metslav, who occupied large areas of Poland. It was a huge stupidity to attack such a powerful opponent alone, and Casimir asked for the support of the Russian prince Yaroslav the Wise. Yaroslav the Wise not only helped Casimir in military affairs, but also became related to him by marrying him to his sister Maria Dobronega. The Polish-Russian army actively fought against the army of Metslav, and Emperor Henry III attacked the Czech Republic, thereby removing Czech troops from the territory of Poland. Casimir the Restorer gets the opportunity to freely restore his state, his economic and military policies have brought many positive changes to the life of the country. In 1044, he actively expanded the borders of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and moved his court to Krakow, making it the central city of the country. Despite Metslav's attempts to attack Krakow and overthrow the Piast heir from the throne, Casimir mobilizes all his forces in time and deals with the enemy. At the same time, in 1055, he annexed Slask, Mazowsza and Silesia, once controlled by the Czechs, to his possessions. Casimir the Restorer became a ruler who managed, bit by bit, to unite and transform Poland into a strong and developed state.
After the death of Casimir the Restorer, an internecine struggle for the throne broke out between Bolesław II the Generous (1058-1079) and Władysław Herman (1079-1102). Bolesław II continued the policy of conquest. He repeatedly attacked Kyiv and the Czech Republic, fought against the policies of Henry IV, which led to the fact that in 1074 Poland declared its independence from the imperial power and became a state that was under the protection of the Pope. And already in 1076 Boleslav was crowned and recognized as the King of Poland. But the strengthening of the power of the magnates, and the constant battles that tired the people, led to an uprising. It was headed by his younger brother Vladislav. The king was overthrown and expelled from the country.
Vladislav German took power. He was a passive politician. He renounced the title of king and returned the title of prince. All his actions were aimed at reconciliation with his neighbors: peace treaties were signed with the Czech Republic and the Roman Empire, taming local magnates and fighting the aristocracy. This led to the loss of some territories and the displeasure of the people. Uprisings began against Władysław, led by his sons (Zbigniew and Bolesław). Zbigniew became the ruler of Greater Poland, Boleslaw - Lesser Poland. But this situation did not suit the younger brother, and on his orders the older brother was blinded and expelled because of his alliance with the Roman Empire and the invasion of Poland. After this event, the throne completely passed to Boleslav Wrymouth (1202-1138). He defeated German and Czech troops several times, which led to further reconciliation between the heads of these states. Having dealt with external problems, Boleslav set his sights on Pomerania. In 1113, he captured the area near the Notets River, also the Naklo fortress. And already 1116-1119. subjugated Gdansk and Pomerania in the east. Unprecedented battles were fought to capture Western Primorye. A rich and developed region. A series of successful operations carried out in 1121 led to the fact that Szczecin, Rügen, Wolin recognized the suzerainty of Poland. A policy began to promote Christianity in these territories, which further strengthened the significance of the prince’s power. The Pomeranian bishopric was opened in Wolin in 1128. Uprisings broke out in these territories more than once, and Bolesław pledged Danish support to put them out. For this, he gave the territory of Rügen to Danish rule, but the remaining territories remained under the overlord of Poland, although not without homage to the emperor. Before his death in 1138, Bolesław Wrymouth created a will - a statute according to which he divided the territories between his sons: the eldest Władysław sat in Silesia, the second, named Bolesław, in Mazovia and Kuyavia, the third Mieszko - in part of Greater Poland with the center in Poznan, the fourth son Henry, received Lublin and Sandomierz, and the youngest, named Casimir, was left in the care of his brothers without lands or power. The remaining lands passed into the power of the eldest of the Piast family and formed an autonomous inheritance. He created a system called the seigneurate - the center of which was in Krakow with the power of the great Krakow prince-princeps. He had sole power over all territories, Pomerania and dealt with foreign policy, military and church issues. This led to feudal strife for a period of 200 years.
True, there was one positive moment in the history of Poland, which is associated with the reign of Boleslav Krivoust. After the Second World War, it was its territorial borders that were taken as the basis as the borders for the restoration of modern Poland.
The second half of the 12th century for Poland, as well as for Kievan Rus and Germany, became a turning point. These states collapsed, and their territories came under the rule of vassals, who, together with the church, minimized his power, and then began not to recognize it at all. This led to greater independence for the once controlled areas. Poland began to look more and more like a feudal country. Power was concentrated in the hands not of the prince, but of the large landowner. Villages were populated and new systems of land cultivation and harvesting were actively introduced. A three-field system was introduced, and they began to use a plow and a water mill. The reduction of princely taxes and the development of market relations led to the fact that villagers and artisans received the right to dispose of their goods and money. This significantly increased the peasant’s standard of living, and the landowner received better quality work. Everyone benefited from this. Decentralization of power made it possible for large landowners to establish vibrant work, and then trade in goods and services. Constant internecine wars between princes who forgot to deal with state affairs only contributed to this. And soon Poland actively began to develop as a feudal-industrial state.
The 13th century in the history of Poland was troubled and joyless. Poland was attacked from the east by the Mongol-Tatars, and the Lithuanians and Prussians attacked from the north. The princes made attempts to defend themselves from the Prussians and convert the pagans to Christianity, but they were not crowned with success. In despair, Prince Konrad of Mazovia in 1226. called for help from the Teutonic Order. He gave them the Chelma land, although the order did not stop there. The Crusaders had material and military means at their disposal, and also knew how to build fortifications. This made it possible to conquer part of the Baltic lands and establish a small state there - East Prussia. It was settled by immigrants from Germany. This new country limited Poland's access to the Baltic Sea and actively threatened the integrity of Polish territory. So the saving Teutonic Order soon became the unspoken enemy of Poland.
In addition to the Prussians, Lithuanians and Crusaders, an even bigger problem arose in Poland in the 40s - the Mongol invasion. Which has already managed to conquer Rus'. They burst into the territory of Lesser Poland and, like a tsunami, swept away everything in their path. In 1241 In April, a battle took place on the territory of Silesia, near Legnica, between the knights under the leadership of Henry the Pious and the Mongols. Prince Mieszko, knights from Greater Poland, from the orders: Teutonic, Johannite, Templar, came to support him. 7-8 thousand warriors gathered in the sum. But the Mongols had more coordinated tactics, more weapons and used gas, which was intoxicating. This led to the defeat of the Polish army. Nobody knows whether it was the resistance or the fortitude of the Poles, but the Mongols left the country and never attacked again en masse. Only in 1259 and in 1287 repeated their attempt, which was more like an attack for the purpose of robbery than conquest.
After the victory over the conquerors, the history of Poland took its natural course. Poland recognized that supreme power was concentrated in the hands of the Pope and paid him tribute annually. The Pope had great power in resolving all internal and external issues in Poland, which preserved its integrity and unity, and also developed the culture of the country. The foreign policy of all the princes, although ambitiously aimed at expanding their territories, was not realized in practice. Internal expansion reached a great level, when each prince wanted to colonize as many territories as possible within the country itself. The feudal division of society was reinforced by status inequality. The number of serfs increased. The number of emigrants from other countries, for example Germans and Flemings, also increased, who brought their innovations to legal and other management systems. Such colonists, in turn, received land, money and incredible freedom of action to develop the economy. This attracted more and more immigrants to the territory of Poland, the population density increased, and the quality of labor increased. Which led to the emergence of German cities in Silesia that were governed by the Magdeburg Law, or as it was also called the Chelmin Law. The first such city was Środa Śląska. Rather, such legal management spread to the entire territory of Poland and almost all spheres of life of the population.
A new stage in the history of Poland began in 1296, when Władysław Lokietok (1306-1333) from Kuyavia began the path to reunite all lands together with Polish knights and some burghers. He achieved success and in a short time united Lesser and Greater Poland and the Promorye. But in 1300, Vladislav fled from Poland due to the fact that the Czech prince Wenceslas II became king and he did not want to enter into an unequal battle with him. After Vlaclav's death, Vladislav returned to his native country and began to gather the lands back together. In 1305 he regained power in Kuyavia, Sieradz, Sandomierz and Łęczyce. And a year later in Krakow. Suppressed a number of uprisings in 1310 and 1311. in Poznan and Krakow. In 1314 it united with the Principality of Greater Poland. In 1320 he was crowned and returned royal power to the territory of fragmented Poland. Despite his nickname Loketok, which Wladislav received due to his short stature, he became the first ruler who began the path to restoring the Polish state.
His father's work was continued by his son Casimir III the Great (1333-1370). His rise to power is considered to be the beginning of Poland's golden era. The country came to him in a very deplorable state. The Czech king Jan of Luxembourg wanted to capture Lesser Poland, Greater Poland was terrorized by the crusaders. In order to preserve the shaky peace, Casimir signed a non-aggression treaty with the Czech Republic in 1335, while giving him the territory of Silesia. In 1338, Casimir, with the help of the Hungarian king, who was also his brother-in-law, captured the city of Lviv and united Galician Rus' with his country through a union. The history of Poland in 1343 experienced the first peace agreement - the so-called “eternal peace”, which was signed with the Teutonic Order. The knights returned the territories of Kuyavia and Dobrzynsk to Poland. In 1345 Casimir decided to return Silesia. This led to the start of the Polish-Czech War. The battles for Poland were not very successful, and Casimir was forced on November 22, 1348. sign a peace treaty between Poland and Charles I. The lands of Silesia remained assigned to the Czech Republic. In 1366, Poland captured the Belsk, Kholm, Volodymyr-Volyn lands and Podolia. Within the country, Casimir also carried out many reforms according to Western models: in management, the legal system, and the financial system. In 1347 he issued a set of laws called the Wislica Statutes. He eased the duties of the Christians. Sheltered Jews who fled Europe. In 1364, in the city of Krakow, he opened the first university in Poland. Casimir the Great was the last ruler of the Piast dynasty, and through his efforts he revived Poland, making it a large and strong European state.
Despite the fact that he married 4 times, not a single wife gave Casimir a son and his nephew Louis I the Great (1370-1382) became the heir to the Polish throne. He was one of the most just and influential rulers in all of Europe. During his reign, the Polish gentry in 1374. received a lead, which was called Koshitsky. According to it, the nobles could not pay most of all taxes, but for this, they promised to give the throne to Louis's daughter.
And so it happened, the daughter of Louis Jadwiga was given as a wife to the Grand Duke of Lithuania Jagiel, which opened a new page in the history of Poland. Jagiello (1386-1434) became the ruler of two states. In Poland he was known as Vladislav II. He began the path to unify the Principality of Lithuania with the Kingdom of Poland. In 1386 In the city of Krevo, the so-called Krevo Pact was signed, according to which Lithuania was included in Poland, which made it the largest country of the 15th century. According to this pact, Lithuania accepted Christianity, providing itself with assistance from the Catholic Church and the Pope. The prerequisites for such a union for Lithuania were a tangible threat from the Order of the Teutonic Knights, the Tatar navala and the Moscow principality. Poland, in turn, wanted to protect itself from the oppression of Hungary, which began to lay claim to the lands of Galician Rus. Both the Polish gentry and the Lithuanian boyars supported the union as an opportunity to gain a foothold in new territories and gain new markets. The unification, however, did not go very smoothly. Lithuania was a state in which power lay in the hands of the prince and feudal lord. Many, namely Jogaila’s brother, Vytautas, could not come to terms with the fact that after the union the prince’s rights and freedoms would decrease. And in 1389 Vitov enlisted the support of the Teutonic Order and attacked Lithuania. The fighting continued from 1390-1395. although already in 1392 Vytautas reconciled with his brother and became the ruler of Lithuania, and Jagiello ruled in Poland.
Wayward behavior and constant attacks from the Teutonic Order led to the fact that in 1410. Lithuania, Poland, Rus' and the Czech Republic united and held a large-scale battle at Gryuwald, where they defeated the knights and got rid of their oppression for some time.
In 1413 In the city of Gorodlya, all issues regarding the unification of the state were clarified. The Union of Gorodel decided that the Lithuanian prince was appointed by the Polish king with the participation of the Lithuanian council, the two rulers had to hold joint meetings with the participation of the lords, the post of voivode and castellans became a novelty in Lithuania. Following this union, the Principality of Lithuania embarked on the path of development and recognition, and turned into a strong and independent state.
After the union, Casimir Jagiellonczyk (1447-1492) ascended the throne in the Principality of Lithuania, and his brother Vladislav took the throne in Poland. In 1444 King Vladislav died in battle, and power passed into the hands of Casimir. This renewed the personal union and for a long time made the Jagiellonian dynasty heirs to the throne, both in Lithuania and Poland. Casimir wanted to reduce the power of the nobles, as well as the church. But he failed, and he was forced to come to terms with their right to vote during the Diet. In 1454 Casimir provided representatives of the nobility with the so-called Neshava Statutes, which resembled the Magna Carta in their content. In 1466 A joyful and very expected event occurred - the end of the 13th war with the Teutonic Order came. The Polish state won. October 19, 1466 A peace treaty was signed in Toruń. After him, Poland regained territories such as Pomerania and Gdansk, and the order itself was recognized as a vassal of the country.
In the 16th century, the history of Poland experienced its dawn. It has become one of the largest states in all of Eastern Europe, with a rich culture, economy and constant development. Polish became the official language and replaced Latin. The concept of law as power and freedom for the population took root.
With the death of Jan Olbracht (1492-1501), a struggle began between the state and the dynasty that was in power. The Jagiellonian family faced the displeasure of the wealthy population - the gentry, who refused to give duties for their benefit. There was also a threat of expansion from the Habsburgs and the Principality of Moscow. In 1499 The Gorodel Union was resumed, for which the king was elected at elective congresses of the gentry, although the applicants were only from the ruling dynasty, thus the gentry received their spoonful of honey. In 1501, the Lithuanian prince Alexander, for a place on the Polish throne, issued the so-called Melnitsky privelei. Behind him, power was in the hands of parliament, and the king only had the function of chairman. Parliament could impose a veto - a ban on the ideas of the monarch, and also make decisions on all issues of the state without the participation of the king. Parliament became two chambers - the first chamber was the Sejm, with the minor nobility, the second was the Senate, with the aristocracy and clergy. Parliament controlled all expenses of the monarch and issued sanctions for the receipt of funds. The higher ranks of the population demanded even more concessions and privileges. As a result of such reforms, actual power was concentrated in the hands of magnates.
Sigismund I (1506-1548) the Old and his son Sigismund Augustus (1548-1572) put all their efforts into reconciling the conflicting parties and meeting the needs of these versts of the population. It was customary to place the king, senate and ambassadors on equal terms. This somewhat calmed the growing protests within the country. In 1525 The master of the Teutonic Knights, whose name was Albrecht of Brandenburg, was initiated into Lutheranism. Sigismund the Old gave him possession of the Duchy of Prussia, although he remained the overlord of these places. This unification, two centuries later, turned these territories into a strong empire.
In 1543, another outstanding event occurred in the history of Poland. Nicolaus Copernicus stated, proved and even published a book that the earth is not the center of the universe and rotates around its axis. In medieval times, the statement is shocking and risky. But later, it was confirmed.
During the reign of Sigismund II Augustus (1548-1572). Poland flourished and became one of the powerful powers in Europe. He turned his hometown of Krakow into a cultural center. Poetry, science, architecture, and art were revived there. It was there that the Reformation began. On November 28, 1561, an agreement was signed, under which Livonia came under the protection of the Polish-Lithuanian country. Russian feudal lords received the same rights as Catholic Poles. In 1564 allowed the Jesuits to carry out their activities. In 1569, the so-called Union of Lublin was signed, after which Poland and Lithuania united into one state, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. This marked the beginning of a new era. The king is one person for two states and he was elected by the ruling aristocracy, laws were adopted by parliament, and a single currency was introduced. For a long time, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth became one of the largest countries territorially, second only to Russia. This was the first step towards gentry democracy. The legal and economic system was strengthened. The safety of citizens was ensured. The gentry received the green light in all their endeavors, as long as they benefited the state. For a long time, this state of affairs suited everyone, both the population and the monarchs.
Sigismund Augustus died without leaving an heir, which led to the fact that kings began to be elected. 1573 Henry of Valois was chosen. His reign lasted a year, but in such a short time he accepted the so-called “free election”, according to which the gentry chooses the king. A pact of agreement was also adopted - an oath for the king. The king could not even appoint an heir, declare war, or increase taxes. All these issues had to be agreed upon by parliament. Even the king's wife was selected by the senate. If the king behaved inappropriately, the people could disobey him. Thus, the king remained only for the title, and the country turned from a monarchy into a parliamentary republic. Having done business, Henry calmly left France, where he sat on the throne after the death of his brother.
After this, parliament was unable to appoint a new monarch for a long time. In 1575, having married a princess from the Jagiellonian family to the Transylvanian prince Stefan Batory, they turned him into a ruler (1575-1586). He made a number of good reforms: he strengthened himself in Gdansk, Livonia and freed the Baltic states from the attacks of Ivan the Terrible. Received support from the registered Cossacks
(Sigismund Augustus was the first to apply such a term to fugitive peasants from Ukraine when he took them into military service) in the fight against the Ottoman army. He singled out the Jews, giving them privileges and allowing them to have a parliament within the community. In 1579 opened a university in Vilnius, which became the center of European and Catholic culture. Foreign policy was aimed at strengthening its positions on the part of Muscovy, Sweden and Hungary. Stefan Batory became the monarch who began to restore the country to its former glory.
Sigismund III Vasa (1587-1632) received the throne, but did not receive support from either the gentry or the population. They simply didn't like him. Since 1592 Sigismund's fixed idea was to spread and strengthen Catholicism. In the same year he was crowned King of Sweden. He did not exchange Poland for Lutheran Sweden and, due to his failure to appear in the country and not to conduct political affairs, he was overthrown from the Swedish throne in 1599. Attempts to regain the throne brought Poland into a long and unequal war with such a powerful enemy. The first step towards transferring Orthodox subjects to complete submission to the Pope was the Berestey Union of 1596. which was initiated by the king. The Uniate Church got its start - with Orthodox rituals, but with subordination to the Pope. In 1597 he moved the capital of Poland from the city of kings of Krakow to the center of the country - Warsaw. Sigismund wanted to return an absolute monarchy to Poland, limit all the rights of parliament, and slowed down the development of voting. In 1605 ordered that the veto power of parliament be destroyed. The reaction was not long in coming. And a citizen uprising broke out in 1606. The Rokosh uprising ended in 1607. July 6. Although Sigismund suppressed the uprising, his reforms were never accepted. Sigismund also brought the country into a state of war with Muscovy and Moldavia. In 1610 The Polish army occupies Moscow, winning the Battle of Klushino. Sigismund places his son Vladislav on the throne. Although they could not retain power. The people rebelled and overthrew the Polish ruler. In general, Sigismund's reign brought more harm and destruction to the country than development.
Sigismund's son Vladislav IV (1632-1648) became the ruler of a country that was weakened by the war with Muscovy and Turkey. Ukrainian Cossacks attacked its territory. Enraged by the situation in the country, the gentry demanded even more liberties and also refused to pay income tax. The situation in the country was bleak.
The situation did not improve under the leadership of Jan Casimir (1648-1668). The Cossacks continued to torment the territory. The Swedes did not refuse such pleasure either. In 1655 A Swedish king named Charles X conquered the cities of Krakow and Warsaw. The cities passed from one army to another several times, the result was their total destruction and death of the population. Poland was tormented by constant battles, the king fled to Silesia. In 1657 Poland lost Prussia. In 1660 The long-awaited truce between the rulers of Poland and Sweden was signed in Oliwa. But Poland continued the exhausting war with Muscovy, which led to the loss of Kyiv and the eastern banks of the Dnieper in 1667. There were uprisings within the country, tycoons, guided only by their own interests, destroyed the state. In 1652 it got to the point that the so-called “liberium veto” was used for personal interests. Any deputy could vote to reject a law he did not like. Chaos began in the country, and Jan Casimir could not stand it and abdicated the throne in 1668.
Mikhail Vishnevetsky (1669-1673) also did not improve life in the country, and also lost Podolia, giving it to the Turks.
After such a reign, Jan III Sobieski (1674-1696) ascended the throne. He began to regain territories that had been lost during numerous military operations. In 1674 went on a campaign with the Cossacks to liberate Podolia. In August 1675 defeated a large Turkish-Tatar army near the city of Lvov. France, as protector of Poland, insisted on a peace treaty between Poland and Turkey in 1676. In October of that year, the so-called Zhuravino peace was signed, after which Turkey gave 2/3 of the territory that belonged to Ukraine to Poland, and the remaining territory became at the disposal of the Cossacks. February 2, 1676 Sobieski was crowned and given the name Jan III. Despite the support of the French, Jan Sobieski wanted to get rid of Turkish oppression and on March 31, 1683, he entered into an alliance with Austria. This event led to the attack of the troops of Sultan Mehmed IV on Austria. The army of Kara-Mustafa Koprulu captured Vienna. On September 12 of the same year, Jan Sobieski with his army and the army of the Austrians near Vienna defeated enemy troops, stopping the Ottoman Empire from advancing into Europe. But the looming threat from the Turks forced Jan Sobieski in 1686. sign an agreement called “Eternal Peace” with Russia. Russia received Left Bank Ukraine at its disposal and joined the coalition against the Ottoman Empire. Domestic policies aimed at restoring hereditary power were unsuccessful. And the act of the queen, who offered to occupy various government positions for money, completely shook the power of the ruler.
For the next 70 years, the Polish throne was occupied by various foreigners. Ruler of Saxony – Augustus II (1697-1704, 1709-1733). He enlisted the support of Moscow Prince Peter I. He managed to return Podolia and Volyn. In 1699 concluded the so-called Charles Peace with the ruler of the Ottoman Empire. He fought, but without results, with the kingdom of Sweden. And in 1704 left the throne at the insistence of Charles XII, who gave power to Stanislav Leshchinsky.
The decisive battle for Augustus was the battle near Poltava in 1709, in which Peter I defeated the Swedish troops, and he returned to the throne again. 1721 brought the final victory of Poland and Russia over Sweden, ending the Northern War. This did not bring anything positive for Poland, because it lost its independence. At the same time, it became part of the Russian Empire.
His son Augustus III (1734-1763) became a doll in the hands of Rossi. The local population, under the leadership of Prince Czartoryski, wanted to cancel the so-called “liberium veto” and return Poland to its former greatness. But the coalition led by the Pototskys did their best to prevent this. And 1764 Catherine II helped Stanisław August Poniatkowski (1764-1795) ascend the throne. He was destined to become the last king of Poland. He made a number of progressive changes in the monetary and legislative system, replaced cavalry with infantry in the army and introduced new types of weapons. I wanted to cancel the liberium veto. In 1765 introduced such an award as the Order of St. Stanislaus. The gentry, dissatisfied with such changes, in 1767-1678. held the Repninsky Sejm, at which they decided that all freedoms and privileges remained with the gentry, and that Orthodox citizens and Protestants had the same state rights as Catholics. Conservatives did not miss the chance to create their own union, called the Bar Conference. Such events sparked a civil war, and interference in its course by neighboring countries became undeniable.
The result of this situation was the first partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, which took place on July 25, 1772. Austria took the territory of Lesser Poland. Russia - captured Livonia, the Belarusian cities of Polotsk, Vitebsk and some part of the Minsk Voivodeship. Prussia received the so-called Greater Poland and Gdansk. The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth ceased to exist. In 1773 destroyed the Jesuit Order. All internal affairs were handled by the ambassador, who sat in the capital Warsaw, and throughout Poland since 1780. permanent troops from Russia were stationed.
May 3, 1791 The winners created a set of laws - the Constitution of Poland. Poland turned into a hereditary monarchy. All executive power belonged to ministers and parliament. They are elected once every 2 years. The “Liberium veto” is abolished by the constitution. Judicial and administrative autonomy was given to cities. A regular army was organized. The first prerequisites for the abolition of serfdom were accepted. The history of Poland received worldwide recognition, because the constitution became the first written constitution in Europe, and the second in the whole world.
Such reforms did not suit the magnates who created the Targowitz Confederation. They asked for even more support from Russian and Prussian troops, and the result of such help was the subsequent division of the state. January 23, 1793 became the day of the next section. Territories such as the city of Gdansk, Torun, the territories of Greater Poland, and Mazovia were attached to Prussia. The Russian Empire took over a huge part of the territories that belonged to Lithuania and Belarus, Volyn and Podolia. Poland was torn apart and ceased to be considered a state.
This turn in the history of Poland could not happen without protests and uprisings. March 12, 1794 Tadeusz Kosciuszko became the leader of a massive popular uprising against the usurpers. The motto was the revival of Polish independence and the return of lost lands. On this day, Polish soldiers went to Krakow. And already on March 24, the city was liberated. On April 4, peasants near Racławice defeated the tsarist troops. On April 17-18, Warsaw was liberated. This was done by artisans under the leadership of J. Kilinki. The same detachment liberated Vilna on April 22-23. The taste of victory led the rebels to demand decisive action and the continuation of the revolution. On May 7, Kosciuszko created the Polanets station wagon, but the peasants did not like it. A series of defeats in battles, troops from Austria and the offensive of Russian troops on August 11 under the leadership of the famous general A.V. Suvorov forced the rebels to leave Vilna and other cities. On November 6, Warsaw surrendered. The end of November became sad, the tsarist troops suppressed the uprising.
In 1795 the so-called third partition of Poland occurred. Poland was erased from the world map.
The further history of Poland was no less heroic, but also sad. The Poles did not want to put up with the absence of their country and did not give up trying to return Poland to its former power. They acted independently in uprisings, or were part of the troops of countries that fought against the occupiers. In 1807 When Napoleon defeated Prussia, Polish troops played an important role in this victory. Napoleon gained power over the captured territories of Poland during the 2nd partition and created there the so-called Grand Duchy of Warsaw (1807-1815). In 1809 he annexed to this principality the lands lost after the 3rd partition. Such a small Poland delighted the Poles and gave them hope for complete liberation.
In 1815 when Napoleon was defeated, the so-called Congress of Vienna was assembled and territorial changes took place. Krakow became autonomous with a protectorate (1815-1848). The joy of the people, as it became, the so-called Grand Duchy of Warsaw lost its western lands, which were taken over by Prussia. She turned them into her own Duchy of Poznań (1815-1846); The eastern part of the country received the status of a monarchy - under the name “Kingdom of Poland”, and went to Russia.
In November 1830 There was an unsuccessful uprising of the Polish population against the Russian Empire. The same fate awaited opponents of the government in 1846 and 1848. In 1863 The January uprising broke out, but for two years it did not achieve success. There was an active Russification of the Poles. In 1905-1917 Poles took part in 4 Russian Dumas, while actively seeking national autonomy for Poland.
In 1914 the world was drowned in the fires and devastation of the First World War. Poland received, as well as the hope of gaining independence, because the dominant countries fought among themselves, and many problems. The Poles had to fight for the country to which the territory belonged; Poland became a springboard for military operations; The war exacerbated an already tense situation. Society was divided into two camps. Roman Dmovsky (1864-1939) and his associates believed that Germany was creating all the problems and fiercely supported cooperation with the Entente. They wanted to unite all the once Polish lands into autonomy under the protection of Russia. Representatives of the Polish Socialist Party acted more radically; their main desire was the defeat of Russia. Liberation from Russian oppression was the main condition for independence. The party insisted on creating independent armed forces. Jozef Pilsudski created and led garrisons of the people's army and took the side of Austria-Hungary in the battle.
Russian ruler Nicholas I, in his 1914 declaration of August 14, promised to accept the autonomy of Poland with all its lands under the protection of the Russian Empire. Germany and Austria-Hungary, in turn, two years later, on November 5, announced a manifesto, which stated that the Kingdom of Poland would be created in territories that belonged to Russia. In the month of August 1917 in France they created the so-called Polish National Committee, whose leaders were Roman Dmowski and Ignacy Paderewski. Józef Haller was called to become commander-in-chief of the army. The history of Poland received an impetus for development on January 8, 1918. Wilson, the US President, insisted on the restoration of Poland. He called for Poland to regain its position and become an independent country with open access to the Baltic Sea. At the beginning of June she was recognized as a supporter of the Entente. October 6, 1918 Taking advantage of the confusion in government structures, the Polish Regency Council made a declaration of independence. November 11, 1918 power passed to Marshal Pilsudski. The country received the long-awaited freedom, but faced certain difficulties: lack of borders, national currency, government structures, devastation and fatigue of the people. But the desire to develop gave an unreal impetus to action. And January 17, 1919 At the fateful Versailles Conference, the territorial borders of Poland were determined: Pomerania was attached to its territory, access to the sea was opened, Gdansk received the status of a free city. July 28, 1920 the large city of Cieszyn and its suburbs were divided between two countries: Poland and Czechoslovakia. February 10, 1920 Vilna joined.
On April 21, 1920, Pilsudski teamed up with the Ukrainian Petlyura and dragged Poland into the war with the Bolsheviks. The result was an attack by the Bolshevik army on Warsaw, but they were defeated.
Poland's foreign policy was aimed at a policy of not joining any country or union. January 25, 1932 signed a bilateral non-aggression treaty with the USSR. January 26, 1934 a similar pact was signed with Germany. This idyll did not last long. Germany demanded that the city, which was free, Gdansk, be given over to them and given the opportunity to build highways and a railway across the Polish border.
April 28, 1939 Germany broke the non-aggression pact, and on August 25 a German battleship landed on the territory of Gdansk. Hitler explained his actions with the salvation of the German people, who were under the yoke of the Polish authorities. They also staged a cruel provocation. On August 31, German soldiers dressed in Polish uniforms burst into the radio station studio in the city of Gleiwitz, accompanied by gunfire, and read a Polish text that called for war with Germany. This message was broadcast on all radio stations in Germany. And September 1, 1939 at 4 hours 45 minutes, armed German troops began shelling Polish buildings, aviation destroyed everything from the air, and the infantry sent its forces to Warsaw. Germany began its "lightning war". 62 infantry divisions and 2 air fleets were supposed to quickly break through and destroy the Polish defenses. The Polish command also had a secret plan called "West" in case of military conflict. Behind this plan, the army had to prevent the enemy from reaching vital areas, carry out active mobilization and, having received support from Western countries, go on a counteroffensive. The Polish army was significantly inferior to the German one. 4 days were enough for the Germans to travel 100 km into the interior of the country. Within a week, cities such as Krakow, Kielce and Lodz were occupied. On the night of September 11, German tanks entered the suburbs of Warsaw. On September 16, the cities were captured: Bialystok, Brest-Litovsk, Przemysl, Sambir and Lvov. Polish troops, with the support of the population, waged a guerrilla war. On September 9, the Poznan garrison defeated the enemy over Bzura, and the Hel Peninsula did not surrender until October 20. Following the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact on September 17, 1939. Like clockwork, the powerful Red Army entered the territory of western Ukraine and Belarus. On September 22, she easily entered Lviv.
On September 28, Ribbentrop signed an agreement in Moscow, according to which the border between Germany and the USSR was designated by the Curzon Line. During the 36 days of the war, Poland was divided for the fourth time, between two totalitarian states.
The war brought a lot of grief and destruction to the country. Everyone suffered, regardless of their former power or wealth. The Jews suffered the most in this war. Poland was no exception in this regard. The Holocaust on its territory took on a horrific character. There were justified concentration camps for prisoners. They were not just killed there, they were mocked there and incredible experiments were carried out. Auschwitz is considered the largest death camp, but there were many smaller ones scattered throughout the country, and sometimes several in each city. People were scared and doomed.
On April 19, 1943, the inhabitants of the Warsaw ghetto could not stand it and began an uprising on the night of Passover. Out of 400 thousand. At that time, only 50-70 thousand Jews remained alive in the ghetto. of people. When the police entered the ghetto for a new batch of victims, the Jews opened fire on them. Methodically, in the following weeks, the SS pens exterminated the inhabitants. The ghetto was set on fire and razed to the ground. In May the Great Synagogue was blown up. The Germans declared the end of the uprising on May 16, 1943, although outbreaks of fighting continued until June 1943.
Another large-scale uprising occurred on August 1, 1944. in Warsaw, as part of Operation Storm. The main goal of the uprising was to oust the German army from the city and show independence to the Soviet authorities. The beginning was rosy, the army was able to take control of most of the city. The Soviet army, for various reasons, stopped its offensive. September 14, 1944 The first Polish army strengthened its positions on the eastern bank of the Vistula and helped the rebels move to the western bank. The attempt was not successful and only 1200 people were able to do it. Winston Churchill demanded radical action from Stalin to help the uprising, but this was unsuccessful, and the Royal Air Force carried out 200 sorties and dropped aid and military ammunition directly from the plane. But even this could not turn the Warsaw Uprising into a success and it was soon brutally suppressed. The number of victims is not known for certain, but they say that there were 16,000 killed and 6,000 wounded, and this is only during the fighting. In the operations carried out by the Germans to clear out the rioters, about 150-200,000 civilians died. 85% of the entire city was destroyed.
For another year, the history of Poland experienced murder and destruction, and constant battles and hostilities lasted for a year. The Polish army took part in all battles against the Nazis. She was a participant in various missions.
January 17, 1945 the capital was liberated from the Nazis. Germany announced its surrender.
The First Polish Army was the second largest after the Soviet one, which took part in the war, and in particular in the storming of Berlin.
May 2, 1945 During the battles for Berlin, Polish troops planted the white and red flag of victory on the Prussian Victory Column and on the Brandenburg Gate. On this day, the modern history of Poland celebrates the national flag day.
On February 4-11, 1945, at the so-called Yalta Conference, Churchill and Roosevelt decided to annex the territories of Poland located in the east to the USSR. Poland compensates for the lost territories by receiving what were once German lands.
On July 5, 1945, the Polish Lublin government was temporarily recognized as legitimate. Non-communists could also apply for a place in management. In August, a decision was made to annex to Poland the territories that belonged to the eastern parts of Prussia and Germany. 15% of the 10 billion reparations that Germany paid were supposed to go to Poland. Post-war Poland became communist. Regular troops of the Red Army began hunting for members of various party forces. Bolesława Bieruta, a communist representative, became president. An active process of Stalinization began. In September 19948 General Secretary Wladyslaw Gomulka was removed from office due to his nationalist deviations. In the process of merging two - the Polish Workers' and Polish Socialist parties - in 1948, a new Polish United Workers' Party appeared. In 1949, the so-called United Peasant Party was approved. Poland received membership in the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance of the USSR. June 7, 1950 The GDR and Poland signed an agreement, beyond which the Polish border in the west was located along the Oder-Neisse - the distribution line. To create a military coalition against the main enemy of the USSR - NATO, in 1955. The Warsaw Pact was signed. The coalition included countries such as the USSR, Poland, East Germany, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria, Romania and for some time Albania.
Dissatisfaction with Stalin's policies led to mass riots in 1956. in Poznan. 50tis. people, workers and students, opposed the prevailing Soviet oppression. In October of this year, the nationalist-minded Gomulka became the general secretary of the PUWP. He reveals all the abuses of power within the Communist Party, reveals the truth about Stalin and his policies. Removes from the posts of the chairman of the Sejm, also Rokossovsky and many other officers from the union. Through his actions he won a certain neutrality from the USSR. The lands were returned to the peasants, freedom of speech appeared, trade and industry were given the green light for all undertakings, workers could intervene in the management of enterprises, warm relations with the church were restored, and the production of missing goods was established. The USA gave its economic assistance.
In the 1960s, the restored Soviet power reversed almost all of Gomulk's reforms. Pressure on the country increased again: peasant partnerships, censorship and anti-religious policies returned.
In 1967, the famous Rolling Stones give a concert in the Palace of Culture in Warsaw.
And in March 1968 Student anti-Soviet demonstrations swept across the country. The result was arrests and emigrations. In the same year, the country's leadership refused to support the reforms of the so-called “Prague Spring”. In August, under pressure from the USSR, Polish troops took part in the occupation of Czechoslovakia.
December 1970 was marked by mass demonstrations in the cities of Gdansk, Gdynia and Szczecin. People opposed the increase in prices for various goods, and mainly for food. It all ended sadly. About 70 workers were killed and about 1,000 were injured. Constant persecution and persecution of the “dissatisfied” led to the creation in 1798. The Committee for Public Defense, which was the first stage for creating an opposition.
October 16, 1978 The new Pope is not an Italian, but the Bishop of Krakow - Karol Wojtyla (John Paul II). He directs his work towards bringing the church closer to people.
In July 1980, food prices soared again. A wave of strikes swept the country. The working class protested in Gdansk, Gdynia, Szczecin. This movement was also supported by miners in Silesia. The strikers formed committees and soon they developed 22 demands. They were of an economic and political nature. People demanded lower prices, higher wages, the creation of trade unions, lower levels of censorship, and the right to rallies and strikes. The management accepted almost all the demands. This led to the fact that workers began en masse to join trade union associations independent from the state, which soon turned into the Solidarity federation. Its leader was Lech Walesa. The main demand of the workers was permission to manage enterprises themselves, appoint management and select personnel. In September, Solidarity called on workers throughout Eastern Europe to form free trade unions. In December, workers demanded a referendum to decide the power of the Soviet Communist Party in Poland. This statement had an immediate reaction.
On December 13, 1981, Jaruzelski declared martial law in the country and arrested all Solidarity leaders. Strikes broke out and were quickly suppressed.
In 1982 Trade unions were established under national leadership.
In July 1983 Pope John Paul II arrived in the country, which led to the lifting of the protracted martial law. Pressure from international society granted amnesty to prisoners in 1984.
During 1980-1987. The economic situation in Poland was deteriorating. Workers also went hungry in the summer of 1988. Strikes began in factories and mines. The government called on Solidarity leader Lech Walesa for help. These negotiations received the symbolic name of the “Round Table”. It was decided to hold free elections and legalize Solidarity.
June 4, 1989 elections were held. Solidarity took the lead, overtaking the Communist Party, and took all the leading positions in the government. Tadeusz Mazowiecki became the country's prime minister. A year later, Lech Walesa became president. His leadership lasted one term.
In 1991 The Cold War has officially ended. The Warsaw Pact was terminated. Beginning of 1992 pleased with the active growth of GNP, new market institutions were created. Poland began active economic development. In 1993 An opposition was formed - the Union of Democratic Left Forces.
At the next elections, Aleksander Kwasniewski, the head of the Social Democratic Party, ascended to the presidency. His government did not get off to an easy start. Members of parliament demanded an active policy to dismiss traitors to the country and those who had collaborated or worked for the union for a long time, and then Russia. They put forward a law on lustration, but it did not pass the number of votes. And in October 1998, Kwasniewski signed this law. Everyone who was in power had to frankly admit their ties with Russia. They were not fired from their positions, but this knowledge became public knowledge. If suddenly someone did not confess, and such evidence was found, then the official was prohibited from holding office for 10 years. 
In 1999 Poland has become an active member of the NATO alliance. In 2004 joined the European Union.
Elections 2005 brought victory to Lech Kaczynski.
In November 2007, Donald Tusk was elected prime minister. This government structure managed to maintain a stable political and economic situation. And even during the crisis of 2008. the Poles did not feel any big problems. In managing foreign policy, they chose neutrality and avoided conflicts with both the EU and Russia.
Plane crash in April 2010 took the lives of the president and representatives of the color of Polish society. This was a dark page in the history of Poland. People mourned a just leader, and the country plunged into mourning for a long time.
After the tragic incident, it was decided to hold early elections. The first round was on June 20 and the second on July 4, 2010. In the second round, Bronislaw Komorowski, a representative of the party called “Civic Platform”, won with 53% of the votes, overtaking L. Kaczynski’s brother, Jaroslaw Kaczynski.
Party "Civil Platform" October 9, 2011 won the parliamentary elections. The following parties also came to power: “Law and Justice” J. Kaczynski, “Palikot Movement” J. Palikot, PSL - Polish peasant party leader W. Pawlak and the Union of Left Democratic Forces. The ruling Civic Platform party has formed a coalition with the up-and-coming PSL. Donald Tusk was again chosen as Prime Minister.
In 2004 he was elected President of the European Council.
The history of Poland has passed a long and very difficult road to becoming an independent state. Today it is one of the developed and strong countries of the European Union. Harvested fields, high-quality roads, good salaries and prices, folk crafts, modern education, assistance to the disabled and low-income people, developed industry, economy, courts and governing bodies, and most importantly, a people who are so proud of their country and would not trade it for anything in the world. – make Poland the country we know, appreciate and respect. Poland has proven by its example that even from a completely destroyed, fragmented state it is possible to build a new competitive country.