A multicellular green alga whose chromatophore is spirally twisted. Life activity and structure of algae

In flowing bodies of water you can often see bright green clusters of silky threads attached to underwater rocks and snags. It is a multicellular filamentous green algae called Ulothrix. 168 . Its filaments consist of a number of short cells; in the cytoplasm of each of them are located core and a chromatophore in the form of an open ring. cells divide and the thread grows. Ulotrix feeds in the same way as Chlamydomonas.

At a time favorable for algae life, each cell, except the one with which the thread is attached, can divide into 2 or 4 motile cells with flagella - zoospores. They go out into the water, swim, then attach to some underwater object and divide. This is how new threads of algae are formed.

Under unfavorable conditions for life, numerous small motile gametes with flagella are formed in some algae cells. The gametes enter the water and fuse in pairs.

This is how fertilization occurs. Usually gametes that originate in cells of different threads merge. A zygote is formed. It is covered with a thick shell and can remain dormant for a long time. Under favorable conditions, the zygote divides into 4 spore cells. Each of them, landing on an underwater object, can give rise to a new filamentous algae, ulotrix.

In stagnant or slow-moving waters, slippery bright green lumps often float or settle to the bottom. They look like cotton wool and are formed by clusters of filamentous algae spirogyra. Elongated cylindrical cells are covered with mucus. Inside the cells there are chromatophores in the form of spirally twisted ribbons 169 .

The importance of green algae in nature is great. Forming organic substances, green algae absorb carbon dioxide from water and, like all green plants, release oxygen, which living organisms living in water breathe. In addition, green algae, especially unicellular and filamentous, serve as food for fish and other animals.

Excessive growth of algae, for example in irrigation canals or fish ponds, can be harmful. To avoid this, canals and reservoirs are periodically cleaned of algae.

Marine brown and red algae

Brown and red algae are especially numerous in the seas and oceans. Sailors call thickets of giant brown algae “living barriers” - a kind of underwater forests and meadows. Such algae can delay a boat, slow down a larger vessel, or prevent a seaplane from landing.

In our Far Eastern seas and the seas of the Arctic Ocean, large brown fish grow multicellular kelp algae 170. Its body, or thallus, is attached to stones or underwater rocks by root-like outgrowths - rhizoids (from the Greek words “riza” - root, “idos” - species). A narrow cylindrical part up to 50 cm long extends upward from the rhizoids - the stem. A dissected or solid leaf-shaped plate up to 5.5 m long develops on the stem.

Laminaria lives only at a relatively shallow depth, where enough sunlight penetrates.

Massive, sometimes complexly dissected thalli of other brown algae stretch tens of meters underwater, resembling giant snakes. Such giant algae live along the Pacific coasts of South and North America. They also grow off the coast of Argentina, off the western coast of South Africa, off the coast of Alaska, the Aleutian, Commander and Kuril Islands.

Red algae usually live at greater depths 170 . Their color helps to absorb those solar rays that penetrate to a depth of 100 m.

The thalli of some large seaweeds are divided into sections similar to stems and flowering leaves plants. But algae do not have roots, stems, leaves, flowers, fruits or seeds. Most marine brown and red algae reproduce by spores.

The chromatophores of seaweed cells contain chlorophyll. Thanks to chlorophyll, photosynthesis occurs in light.

At the same time, oxygen is released into the water, and carbon dioxide is absorbed from the water. Organic substances are formed in the body of algae: sugar, starch, fats, squirrels.

In addition to chlorophyll, cell chromatophores contain orange, yellow, brown and red pigments. They determine the color of algae.

Man uses seaweed in the chemical industry. From them, iodine, potassium salts, cellulose, alcohol, and acetic acid are obtained. In addition, seaweed is consumed as livestock feed and used as fertilizers.

A gelatinous substance, agar-agar, is extracted from red algae, widely used in the confectionery industry and in laboratory work related to the cultivation of microorganisms.

The peoples of coastal countries, such as Japan, use seaweed to prepare a variety of dishes. Laminaria, or, as it is also called, seaweed, is especially often eaten.

How do people use seaweed?

Multicellular green algae

Examples of multicellular green algae are Ulotrix and Spirogyra . Kinds genus, aulothrix They live mainly in fresh water, less often in sea and brackish water bodies, as well as in soil. Algae attach to underwater objects, forming bright green bushes up to 10 cm or more in size.

Unbranched ulothrix filaments, consisting of a single row of cylindrical cells with thick cellulose membranes, are attached to the substrate by a colorless conical basal cell, which performs the functions of a rhizoid. The structure of the chromatophore is characteristic, which has the form of a wall plate forming an open belt or ring (cylinder). All cells, except the basal one, are capable of dividing, causing the continuous growth of the thallus.

Asexual reproduction is carried out in two ways: by disintegrating the filament into short sections, each of which develops into a new filament, or by the formation of four-flagellate zoospores in the cells. They leave the mother cell, shed their flagella one after another, attach sideways to the substrate, become covered with a thin cellulose membrane and grow into a new thread.

Reproduction of the filamentous algae ulothrix: red arrows - asexual reproduction, blue arrows - sexual reproduction.

The sexual process is isogamous. After fertilization, the zygote first floats, then settles to the bottom, loses flagella, develops a dense shell and a mucous stalk, with which it attaches to the substrate. This is a resting sporophyte. After a period of rest, reduction division of the nucleus occurs and the zygote germinates as zoospores.

Thus, in the life cycle of ulotrix, there is an alternation of generations, or a change in sexual and asexual forms of development: the filamentous multicellular gametophyte (the generation that forms gametes) is replaced by a unicellular sporophyte - a generation that is represented by a kind of zygote on a stalk and is capable of forming spores.

Spirogyra It is common in stagnant and slowly flowing waters, where it often forms large masses of bright green “mud.” It is a thin thread consisting of long cylindrical cells arranged in one row with a clearly visible cell wall. On the outside, the threads are covered with a mucous sheath.

Spirogyra filamentous algae cell

A characteristic feature of spirogyra is a ribbon-shaped, spirally curved chromatophore located in the wall layer of the cytoplasm. In the center of the cell there is a nucleus enclosed in a cytoplasmic sac and suspended on cytoplasmic cords in a large vacuole.

Asexual reproduction is carried out by breaking the thread into short sections, and there is no sporulation. The sexual process is conjugation. In this case, two threads are usually located parallel to each other and grow together with the help of copulation processes or bridges. Their shells dissolve at the point of contact, and a through channel is formed, through which the compressed contents of the cell of one thread moves into the cell of the other and merges with its protoplast. The zygote formed as a result of fertilization germinates after a period of rest. This is preceded by a reduction division of the nucleus: of the four nuclei formed, three die, and one remains the nucleus of a single seedling emerging through a rupture in the outer layers of the zygote shell.

Spirogyra
(Spirogyra)

Spirogyra(Spirogyra Link.) is a green algae from the conjugate group (see Conjugatae), belongs to the Zygnemeae family. The body of Spirogyra is a non-branching thread, consisting of cylindrical cells. The latter contains a chromatophore characteristic of Spirogyra (see): one or several spirally curled, green ribbons. The chromatophores contain colorless bodies around which starch grains, the so-called pyrenoids, are grouped. The nucleus, very clearly visible under a microscope, suspended on protoplasmic filaments, is located in the middle of the cell. Spirogyra grows by intercalary (uniform) cell division. The sexual process of Spirogyra is copulation or conjugation: cells of 2 adjacent filaments are connected by lateral outgrowths; the shells separating these outgrowths are destroyed and, thus, a copulation channel is obtained, through which the entire contents of one cell (male) passes into another (female) and merges with the contents of the latter; the cell in which the fusion occurred (zygote) becomes rounded, separated from the filament and, covered with a thick membrane, turns into a zygospore. The zygospore overwinters and grows into a young thread in the spring. In the zygote, after the fusion of the contents of the male and female cells, the chromatophore of the first cell dies and only the second remains, the nuclei first merge into one, which is then divided into 4 unequal in size (unequal division of the nucleus); Of these, 2 smaller ones diffuse in the surrounding plasma, and 2 larger ones, merging, form the nucleus of the zygote.

The described copulation between cells of different threads (dioecious) is called staircase. In the case when a channel is formed between two neighboring cells of the same thread, copulation (monoecious) is called lateral. In most Spirogyra, during the sexual process, the copulation canal is always developed (subgenus Euspirogyra) and both male and female cells are the same, but in some these cells are unequal in size, and the copulation canal is very poorly developed or completely absent, so that the cells merge with each other directly ( subgenus Sirogonium). Due to the size of Spirogyra cells, reaching up to 0.01 mm in some of its species, due to the clarity of their structure, this algae is one of the best studied and serves as a classic object in the study of the anatomy of the cell and nucleus.

Green algae spirogyra

Spirogyra is one of the most common green algae in fresh waters in all parts of the world; it is also found in brackish waters. Its threads are collected in large green clusters that float on the surface of the water or spread along the bottom and are very often found in the mud of standing and flowing waters, in ponds, swamps, ditches, rivers, streams, pools, etc.

Spirogyra under a microscope

In total, up to 70 species of Spirogyra are known, differing from each other in the shape and size of cells and zygospores, as well as the shape and number of chromatophore ribbons found in them, and belonging, as stated above, to 2 divisions - Euspirogyra (the most common: Sp. tenuissima Hass., longata Kg. with one ribbon, Sp. nitida Kg. with several ribbons, Sp. grassa Kg. with very thick cells, etc.) and Sirogonium (Sp. stictica Sm., etc.). For Russia, up to 40 species of Spirogyra are indicated

Ulotrix

Ulotrix(lat. Ulothrix) - a genus of green algae Chlorophyta .

It lives in sea and fresh waters, forming green mud on underwater objects. Filamentous type of thallus differentiation. Chloroplast wall in the form of a belt, closed or open, with several pyrenoids. There is only one core, but without painting it is not visible.

Order Ulotrichales

The ulothrix thallus is built like a single-row unbranched thread. It is composed of cells similar to each other in structure and function (Table 30, 2). Potentially, all cells are capable of dividing and participating in the growth of a plant, just as all cells can form spores and gametes. Only the cell at the base of the filament differs from the rest: with its help, the thallus is attached to the substrate (in attached forms). Ulothrix cells have significant autonomy. This property is associated with the ability for regeneration and vegetative reproduction - individual cells or sections of threads easily break away from the threads and begin to grow independently

The order includes more than 16 genera. Despite the fact that all their representatives are constructed as a simple single-row thread, important differences can be found in their organization, on the basis of which the entire order is divided into three groups. In algae of the first group, the thread is a row of cells loosely arranged in a thick mucous sheath. Such are, for example, algae Geminella genus Geminella. It is interesting that all ulothrixes with a similar structure are planktonic organisms.

The second group includes those filamentous algae that vegetate as single cells or as short chains of 2-4 cells, very loosely connected to each other. Their threads are formed rarely and for a short time. An example of such a structure would be genus Stichococcus(Stichococcus, Fig. 216, 2). The algae included in this group lead a terrestrial lifestyle.

The central group of the order is the third group, which includes algae, built as a typical multicellular filament, in which the cells are tightly connected to each other without the help of a mucous sheath. Algae belonging to this group are overwhelmingly attached organisms, at least when young. Their threads are more permanent formations, they no longer fall apart so easily, and they can be distinguished between basal and apical parts. This includes several genera, including the central genus of the order - ulothrix(Ulothrix).

Ulothrix species (more than 25 of them are currently known) live mainly in fresh water bodies and only very few enter brackish and sea waters. These algae can also settle on wet surfaces that are periodically wetted by splashes from the surf or waterfalls.

One of the most widespread and well-studied species is ulothrix girdled(Ulothrix zonata).

The thallus of ulotrix consists of unbranched filaments of indefinite length, which at the beginning of growth are attached to the substrate by a basal cell. The filament cells are cylindrical or slightly barrel-shaped, often short. The cell membranes are usually thin, but often they thicken and can become layered. Ulotrix cells, like the cells of all algae of this order, contain a single wall chloroplast with one or more pyrenoids and one nucleus located along the longitudinal axis of the cell. The chloroplast has the shape of a belt that encircles the entire protoplast or only part of it

Vegetative reproduction of ulotrix is carried out by fragmentation: the threads break up into short segments and each segment develops into a new thread. However, ulothrix does not reproduce in this way as often as other algae of the order that have a loose filament structure.

For asexual reproduction, zoospores are used, which are formed in all cells of the filaments except the basal one. The development of zoospores, like gametes, begins at the top of the filament and gradually invades the underlying cells.

Zoospores are ovoid cells with four flagella at the anterior end. They contain a stigma, several contractile vacuoles and a wall chloroplast. Ulotrix girdled has two types of zoospores - macrozoospores and microzoospores. Large macrozoospores have a broadly ovoid shape, often with a pointed posterior end, and a stigma located at the anterior end (. Microzoospores are distinguished by their smaller sizes, rounded posterior end and the location of the stigma in the middle of the spore. The nature of microzoospores remains not entirely clear. Apparently, they represent is a transitional type between macrozoospores and gametes.

Quite often, zoospores do not leave the sporangia, but secrete a thin membrane and turn into aplanospores. The latter are released as a result of the destruction of the thread, but sometimes they can begin to germinate while in sporangia.

During sexual reproduction, gametes are formed in threads in exactly the same way as zoospores. As a rule, they develop in the same threads as zoospores, or in similar ones. Most often, the transition to sexual reproduction is associated with the end of active growth and the onset of unfavorable conditions. Unlike zoospores, gametes bear two flagella. The sexual process is isogamous. Fusion occurs between gametes of the same or different strands. The zygote remains mobile for a short time, then settles, loses its flagella, becomes covered with a thick membrane and turns into a single-celled sporophyte. It enters a period of rest, during which reserve substances accumulate. The shape of the sporophyte is varied; it is usually spherical with a smooth shell; in some marine species it becomes ovoid and sits on a mucous stalk.

BROWN ALGAE,

Brown algae(Phaeophyta), a type of spore plants, including 240 genera (1500 species), of which 3 are freshwater, the rest are marine. Thallus is olive green to dark brown in color due to the presence of a special brown pigment in the chromatophores fucoxanthin (C40H56O6), which masks other pigments (chlorophyll a, chlorophyll c, xanthophyll and beta-carotene). Brown algae vary in shape and size (from microscopic branched filaments to 40-meter plants). In higher brown algae (for example, kelp), tissue differentiation and the appearance of conductive elements are observed. Brown algae are characterized by multicellular hairs with a basal growth zone, which are absent in other algae. Cell membranes contain cellulose and specific substances - algin and fucoidin. Usually each cell has one nucleus. Chromatophores are mostly small and disc-shaped. Some species of brown algae have pyrenoids that are not very similar to the pyrenoids of other algae. In the cell around the core, colorless bubbles containing fucosan, which has many tannin properties, accumulate. As reserve products, mannitol (polyhydric alcohol) and laminarin (polysaccharide), and less often oil, accumulate in the tissues of brown algae. Brown algae reproduce sexually and asexually, rarely vegetatively. Brown algae usually have a sporophyte and a gametophyte; in the higher ones (Laminariaceae, Desmarestiaceae, etc.) they strictly alternate; in Cyclosporans, gametophytes develop on sporophytes; in primitive species (ectocarpaceae, chordariaceae, cutleriaceae, etc.), the gametophyte or sporophyte may drop out of the development cycle or appear once every few generations. Reproductive organs are unilocular or multilocular sporangia. A multilocular sporangium, which more often functions as a gametangium, is formed in the form of a single cell or a series of cells divided by septa into chambers containing one gamete or spore inside. Meiosis usually occurs in unilocular sporangia, in dictyotes - in tetrasporangia. The sexual process is isogamy, heterogamy or oogamy. Pear-shaped spores and gametes usually have an eye and have two flagella on the side, one directed forward, the other backward. brown algae are divided into 3 classes: Aplanosporophyceae (only dictyotes), Phaeosporophyceae (heterogenerate and isogenerate, excluding dictyotes) and Cyclosporophyceae (cyclosporans). brown algae are common in all seas, especially in cold ones, where they form large thickets. They are used to produce alginic acids and their salts - alginates, as well as feed flour and powder used in medicine, containing iodine and other trace elements. Some brown algae are used as food.

Brown algae: 1 - kelp; 2 - dictyota; 3 - ectocarpus; 4 - lessonia; 5 - nereocystis; 6 - alaria; 7 - cystoseira; 8 - elachista bushes on the stem of another algae; 9 - fucus; 10 - dictyosiphon; 11 - sargassum (all except 3 and 8, greatly reduced; 3 - view under a microscope, magnified approximately 40 times).

Multicellular green algae

Reproduction of the filamentous algae ulothrix: red arrows - asexual reproduction, blue arrows - sexual reproduction.

Spirogyra filamentous algae cell

Spirogyra
(Spirogyra)

Green algae spirogyra

Spirogyra under a microscope

In total, up to 70 species of Spirogyra are known, differing from each other in the shape and size of cells and zygospores, as well as the shape and number of chromatophore ribbons in them, and belonging, as mentioned above, to 2 divisions - Euspirogyra (the most common: Sp Tenuissima Hass., longata Kg. with one ribbon, Sp. nitida Kg. with several ribbons, Sp. grassa Kg. with very thick cells, etc.) and Sirogonium (Sp. stictica Sm., etc.). For Russia, up to 40 species of Spirogyra are indicated

Ulotrix

The ulothrix thallus is built like a single-row unbranched thread. It is composed of cells similar to each other in structure and function (Table 30, 2). Potentially, all cells are capable of dividing and participating in the growth of a plant, just as all cells can form spores and gametes. Only the cell at the base of the filament differs from the rest: with its help, the thallus is attached to the substrate (in attached forms). Ulothrix cells have significant autonomy. This property is associated with the ability for regeneration and vegetative propagation - individual cells or sections of threads easily break away from the threads and begin independent growth

One of the most widespread and well-studied species is ulothrix girdled(Ulothrix zonata).

Zoospores emerge through holes in the side wall of the cell. They are enclosed in a common mucous membrane, which ruptures a few seconds after release. After a short time, the zoospores settle with their anterior end onto the substrate, become covered with a thin cellulose membrane and germinate. When germinating, the zoospore extends vertically and differentiates into two parts. The lower part, lacking chloroplast, develops into an attachment cell; upper - divides to form vegetative cells. In Ulotrix girdled, however, the zoospores settle at the posterior end and begin to grow laterally rather than vertically.

BROWN ALGAE,

Brown algae (Phaeophyta), a type of spore plants, including 240 genera (1500 species), of which 3 are freshwater, the rest are marine. Thallus is olive-green to dark brown in color due to the presence in the chromatophores of a special brown pigment, fucoxanthin (C40H56O6), which masks other pigments (chlorophyll a, chlorophyll c, xanthophyll and beta-carotene). Brown algae vary in shape and size (from microscopic branched filaments to 40-meter plants). In higher brown algae (for example, kelp), tissue differentiation and the appearance of conductive elements are observed. Brown algae are characterized by multicellular hairs with a basal growth zone, which are absent in other algae. Cell membranes contain cellulose and specific substances - algin and fucoidin. Usually each cell has one nucleus. Chromatophores are mostly small and disc-shaped. Some species of brown algae have pyrenoids that are not very similar to the pyrenoids of other algae. In the cell around the core, colorless bubbles containing fucosan, which has many tannin properties, accumulate. As reserve products, mannitol (polyhydric alcohol) and laminarin (polysaccharide), and less often oil, accumulate in the tissues of brown algae. Brown algae reproduce sexually and asexually, rarely vegetatively. Brown algae usually have a sporophyte and a gametophyte; in the higher ones (Laminariaceae, Desmarestiaceae, etc.) they strictly alternate; in Cyclosporans, gametophytes develop on sporophytes; in primitive species (ectocarpaceae, chordariaceae, cutleriaceae, etc.), the gametophyte or sporophyte may drop out of the development cycle or appear once every few generations. The reproductive organs are unilocular or multilocular sporangia. A multilocular sporangium, which more often functions as a gametangium, is formed in the form of a single cell or a series of cells divided by septa into chambers containing one gamete or spore inside. Meiosis usually occurs in unilocular sporangia, and in dictyotes - in tetrasporangia. The sexual process is isogamy, heterogamy or oogamy. Pear-shaped spores and gametes usually have an eye and have two flagella on the side, one directed forward, the other backward. brown algae are divided into 3 classes: Aplanosporophyceae (only dictyotes), Phaeosporophyceae (heterogenerate and isogenerate, excluding dictyotes) and Cyclosporophyceae (cyclosporans). brown algae are common in all seas, especially in cold ones, where they form large thickets. They are used to produce alginic acids and their salts - alginates, as well as feed flour and powder used in medicine, containing iodine and other trace elements. Some brown algae are used as food.

Brown algae: 1 - kelp; 2 - dictyota; 3 - ectocarpus; 4 - lessonia; 5 - nereocystis; 6 - alaria; 7 - cystoseira; 8—elachista bushes on the stem of another algae; 9 - fucus; 10 - dictyosiphon; 11 - sargassum (all except 3 and 8, greatly reduced; 3 - view under a microscope, magnified approximately 40 times).

Algae are classified as lower plants. There are more than 30 thousand species. Among them there are both unicellular and multicellular forms. Some algae are very large (several meters in length).

The name “algae” indicates that these plants live in water (fresh and sea). However, algae can be found in many damp places. For example, in the soil and on the bark of trees. Some types of algae are capable, like a number of bacteria, of living on glaciers and hot springs.

Algae are classified as lower plants because they do not have real tissues. Unicellular algae have a body consisting of one cell; some algae form colonies of cells. In multicellular algae, the body is represented by thallus(other name - thallus).

Since algae are classified as plants, they are all autotrophs. In addition to chlorophyll, the cells of many algae contain red, blue, brown, and orange pigments. The pigments are in chromatophores, which have a membrane structure and look like ribbons or plates, etc. A reserve nutrient (starch) is often deposited in chromatophores.

Algae propagation

Algae reproduce both asexually and sexually. Among the types asexual reproduction prevails vegetative. Thus, single-celled algae reproduce by dividing their cells in two. In multicellular forms, fragmentation of the thallus occurs.

However, asexual reproduction in algae can be not only vegetative, but also with the help zoospore, which are formed in zoosporangia. Zoospores are motile cells with flagella. They are capable of active swimming. After some time, the zoospores shed their flagella, become covered with a shell and give rise to algae.

In a number of algae it is observed sexual process, or conjugation. In this case, DNA exchange occurs between cells of different individuals.

At sexual reproduction In multicellular algae, male and female gametes are formed. They are formed in special cells. In this case, gametes of both types or only one (only male or only female) can be formed on one plant. After release, the gametes merge to form a zygote. Most often, the zygote turns into a spore, which remains dormant for some time, thus surviving unfavorable conditions conditions Usually, after wintering, algae spores give rise to new plants.

Unicellular algae

Chlamydomonas

Chlamydomonas lives in shallow ponds and puddles contaminated with organic matter. Chlamydomonas is a single-celled algae. Its cell is oval in shape, but one of the ends is slightly pointed and has a pair of flagella. The flagella allow them to move quite quickly in water by screwing them in.

The name of this algae comes from the words “chlamys” (the clothing of the ancient Greeks) and “monad” (the simplest organism). The Chlamydomonas cell is covered with a pectin shell, which is transparent and does not adhere tightly to the membrane.

The cytoplasm of Chlamydomonas contains a nucleus, a light-sensitive eye (stigma), a large vacuole containing cell sap, and a pair of small pulsating vacuoles.

Chlamydomonas has the ability to move towards light (due to stigma) and oxygen. Those. it has positive phototaxis and aerotaxis. Therefore, Chlamydomonas usually floats in the upper layers of water bodies.

Chlorophyll is found in a large chromatophore, which has the shape of a bowl. The process of photosynthesis takes place here.

Despite the fact that Chlamydomonas as a plant is capable of photosynthesis, it can also absorb ready-made organic substances present in water. This property is used by humans to purify polluted waters.

Under favorable conditions, Chlamydomonas reproduces asexually. At the same time, its cell discards flagella and divides, forming 4 or 8 new cells. As a result, Chlamydomonas multiplies quite quickly, which leads to the so-called water bloom.

Under unfavorable conditions (cold, drought), Chlamydomonas under its shell forms gametes in the amount of 32 or 64 pieces. The gametes enter the water and fuse in pairs. As a result, zygotes are formed, which are covered with a dense membrane. In this form, Chlamydomonas tolerates unfavorable environmental conditions. When conditions become favorable (spring, rainy season), the zygote divides, forming four Chlamydomonas cells.

Chlorella

The single-celled algae Chlorella lives in fresh water bodies and moist soil. Chlorella has a spherical shape without flagella. It also does not have a light-sensitive eye. Thus, chlorella is immobile.

The chlorella shell is dense and contains cellulose.

The cytoplasm contains a nucleus and a chromatophore with chlorophyll. Photosynthesis occurs very intensively, so chlorella releases a lot of oxygen and produces a lot of organic matter. Just like Chlamydomonas, Chlorella is able to absorb ready-made organic substances present in water.

Chlorella reproduces asexually by division.

Pleurococcus

Pleurococcus forms a green coating on the soil, tree bark, and rocks. It is a unicellular algae.

A pleurococcus cell has a nucleus, a vacuole, and a chromatophore in the form of a plate.

Pleurococcus does not form motile spores. It reproduces by dividing cells in two.

Pleurococcal cells can form small groups (4-6 cells).

Multicellular algae

Ulotrix

Ulothrix is a green multicellular filamentous algae. Usually lives in rivers on surfaces located close to the surface of the water. Ulothrix has a bright green color.

Ulothrix filaments do not branch; at one end they are attached to the substrate. Each filament consists of a number of small cells. The filaments grow due to transverse cell division.

The chromatophore in Ulothrix has the appearance of an open ring.

Under favorable conditions, some cells of the ulothrix filament form zoospores. Spores have 2 or 4 flagella. When a floating zoospore attaches to an object, it begins to divide, forming a thread of algae.

In unfavorable conditions, ulothrix is capable of reproducing sexually. In some cells of its filament, gametes are formed that have two flagella. After leaving the cells, they fuse in pairs, forming zygotes. Subsequently, the zygote will divide into 4 cells, each of which will give rise to a separate thread of algae.

Spirogyra

Spirogyra, like Ulothrix, is a green filamentous algae. In fresh water bodies, it is spirogyra that is most often found. As it accumulates, it forms mud.

Spirogyra filaments do not branch and consist of cylindrical cells. The cells are covered with mucus and have dense cellulose membranes.

The chromatophore of Spirogyra looks like a spirally twisted ribbon.

The Spirogyra nucleus is suspended in the cytoplasm on protoplasmic filaments. The cells also contain a vacuole with cell sap.

Asexual reproduction in Spirogyra is carried out vegetatively: by dividing the thread into fragments.

In Spirogyra, the sexual process occurs in the form of conjugation. In this case, two threads are located next to each other, and a channel is formed between their cells. Through this channel, the contents from one cell pass to another. After this, a zygote is formed, which, covered with a dense shell, overwinters. In the spring, a new spirogyra grows from it.

The meaning of algae

Algae actively participate in the cycle of substances in nature. Through photosynthesis, they release large amounts of oxygen and sequester carbon into organic matter that animals feed on.

Algae are involved in the formation of soil and the formation of sedimentary rocks.

Many types of algae are used by humans. So, agar-agar, iodine, bromine, potassium salts, and adhesives are obtained from seaweed.

In agriculture, algae are used as a feed additive in the diet of animals, and also as a potassium fertilizer.

Algae are used to clean polluted water bodies.

Some types of algae are used by humans for food (kelp, porphyry).

Multicellular algae. Diversity of multicellular algae.

The body is a thallus, or thallus, covered with a cell wall made of cellulose and pectin substances, and mucus. Cytoplasm, vacuoles filled with cell sap, the cell contains one or more nuclei, and plastids, or chromatophores containing pigments.

Green algae department.

Thalluses pure green color. Cell chromatophores contain pigments chlorophyll, carotene and xanthophyll, with the green pigment quantitatively predominant over the yellow ones. The department has about 6 thousand species.

Department	Representative	Description	Habitat
Greens	Ulotrix	The filaments consist of a number of short cells. One core. Chromatophore in the form of an open ring.	Lives in marine and flowing fresh waters
	Spirogyra	The cells are elongated, cylindrical, covered with mucus. Chromatophores in the form of spirally twisted ribbons. Forms large cotton wool-like accumulations on the surface of the water.	Distributed in fresh, standing and slow-moving waters.
	Ulva or sea lettuce	Thallus lamellar, whole, dissected or branched, length 30-150 cm, consists of 2 tightly closed layers of cells.	Most widely distributed in the seas of subtropical and temperate zones
	Nitella (flexible glitter)	The plant forms dense thickets in the water column; it is a thicket of tangled dark green glassy filaments, the latter formed by long cylindrical cells. In appearance it looks like horsetail. Often grown in aquariums. Characeous algae have formations that, in shape and functions, resemble the organs of higher plants.	Distributed in fresh water bodies of Europe, Asia, and North America.

Multicellular algae

Multicellular forms arose after the cell went through a long and complex path of development as an independent organism. Traces of this history are preserved in modern plants. The transition from a unicellular to a multicellular state was accompanied by a loss of individuality and associated changes in the structure and functions of the cell. Within the thalli of multicellular algae, qualitatively different relationships develop than between the cells of unicellular algae. The emergence of multicellularity is associated with differentiation and specialization of cells in the thallus, which should be considered as the first step towards the formation of tissues (histogenesis) and organs (organogenesis). Depending on the arrangement of cells in the thallus, multicellular algae can be represented by filamentous or lamellar forms.[...]

ALGAE - a group of lower autotrophic plants containing chlorophyll and living primarily in water. Includes unicellular, colonial, multicellular and non-cellular plants.[...]

Multicellular antheridia and archegonia of higher plants most likely originated from the multicellular reproductive organs that are found in some algae, in particular green algae. But in multicellular gametangia of algae, all cells of the genital organs are fertile and lack a protective wall.[...]

Multicellular hairs are usually more or less highly branched. They are found only in some algae from the order Ceramiaceae. As has been shown in experiments, the main role of hairs is that they facilitate the absorption of nutrients from the environment. [...]

The body of multicellular algae is called thallus or thallus. They absorb water and mineral salts with their entire surface.[...]

Brown algae are exclusively multicellular plants. Their cell wall consists of an inner cellulose layer and an outer pectin layer, consisting mainly of alginic acid and its salts and compounds with protein substances. Cellulose from brown algae differs in its properties from the cellulose of higher plants, which is why it is sometimes called algulose.[...]

Charal algae, or, as they are also called, charophytes, or rays, are completely unique large plants, sharply different from all other algae. At a quick glance, they are more like some higher plants: some of them are most like horsetail, which grows in forests in shady and damp places; others - on the aquatic plant hornwort. But this similarity, of course, is purely external, since the body of charophyte algae does not consist of stems, leaves and roots, but is a real multicellular thallus (thallus), characteristic of lower plants, although very complex and unique in structure. They are widespread in freshwater ponds and lakes, especially with hard, calcareous water, and some of them are found in sea bays and in brackish continental waters. As a rule, characeae do not grow alone, but form thickets, often very extensive, covering the bottom of reservoirs with a continuous carpet. And in these habitats, characeae are the largest representatives of the algae world - the height of their thalli is usually 20-30 cm, but can reach 1 or even 2 m. All parts of their body, including reproductive organs, are clearly visible to the naked eye.[...]

Green algae have a variety of shapes (spherical, oval, etc.), the cell wall consists of cellulose. The most common unicellular forms found in fresh water bodies are Chlorella and Chlamydomonas gonium, and multicellular forms are ulothrix.[...]

Green algae are widespread in surface waters. Among them there are unicellular, multicellular and colonial forms. Their pigments are concentrated in special formations - chromatophores. They reproduce by division of the cytoplasm to form daughter cells or sexually. Some species reproduce by producing motile spores. Colonies are formed by asexual division in which daughter cells remain associated with each other. The cells of green algae have a variety of shapes (spherical, oval, etc.) and contain organelles characteristic of the cells of higher plants. Their nucleus is differentiated and separated from the cytoplasm by a membrane. The cell membrane consists of cellulose. The cytoplasm may contain grains of starch, which is a product of photosynthesis. The most common unicellular forms found in fresh water bodies are chlorella (Chlorella vulgaris), chlamydomonas (Chlamidomonas), colonial forms - Volvox aureus, gonium (Gonium pectorale), and multicellular forms - ulothrix.[...]

An example of multicellular green algae is the pond dweller Volvox. Forming a colony, this organism consists of 500-60,000 cells, each of which is equipped with two flagella, and also contains an eye, a differentiated nucleus and a chloroplast. A thick pulpous membrane surrounds each cell and separates it from neighboring cells. If one cell in a colony dies, the rest continue to live. The arrangement of cells in a colony ensures the movement of this organism.[...]

Golden algae are unicellular (Fig. 66 and 68), colonial (Fig. 67 and 69) and multicellular (Fig. 75). In addition, among them there is one very peculiar representative with a multinucleate thallus in the form of a naked plasmodium (Fig. 67, 3-5).[...]

Blue-green algae are the most primitive division of photosynthetic lower plants. Unicellular, multicellular and colonial organisms that have a characteristic blue-green color due to a specific complex of pigments.[...]

It does not have a typical nucleus and chromatophores. The protoplast of blue-green algae is differentiated into a peripherally colored layer (chromatoplasm) and a central part (centroplasm). The cells contain special bodies - endoplasts with a dense or viscous consistency. In the plasmatic walls of the cells between the endoplasts there is a “chromatin substance” that stains with nuclear dyes. [...]

Algae often reproduce asexually: unicellular algae by dividing the cell into two or four, and multicellular algae vegetatively by parts of the thallus or spores. During sexual reproduction, gametes fuse in pairs and form a zygote. From the zygote, after a period of rest, spores arise through division, giving rise to new organisms. In some algae, the sexual process is more complex.[...]

Type I. Green algae (Chlorophyceae), the most common type among algae, uniting organisms that are extremely diverse in structure. Among green algae there are unicellular, multicellular and colonial forms.[...]

Unicellular and multicellular green algae are capable of photosynthesis, because they contain chloroplasts, in which chlorophyll is concentrated and from the presence of which they have a green color. They also contain xanthophyll and carotene.[...]

The section Diatomaceae, or diatoms (Clubeaor a) is represented mainly by multicellular organisms, and sometimes even by colonial forms (Fig. 7). Single-celled forms are also found. There are 5,700 known species. They are characterized by a clear differentiation of the body into cytoplasm and nucleus. The cell wall is “impregnated” with silica, as a result of which it is called the shell. They are inhabitants of fresh water bodies, seas and oceans and are part of phytoplankton.[...]

According to their structure, algae can be unicellular, multicellular and colonial forms. Some of them have a cell without a dense shell and only with a compacted outer layer of protoplasm, as a result of which they have the ability to change their shape. Others are characterized by a dense shell, mostly consisting of cellulose. Often the shell contains pectin substances. In some groups the shell is heavily impregnated with lime or silica. Some cells contain one or several nuclei, others do not have a typical nucleus, only in the protoplast a colored peripheral part and an unstained central body are noticeable. In some algae, coloring substances are located in special plasma bodies of various shapes, which are called chromatophores. For the most part, dense bodies - pyrenoids, rich in protein substances - are included in the chromatophores. Starch, which is one of the assimilation products, is deposited around the pyrenoids. Spare nutrients include oils, fats, leukosin, mannitol and glucose.[...]

Unlike other multicellular algae, brown algae, along with the usual single-locular sporangia (Fig. 121, 2), have multilocular sporangia and gametangia, incorrectly called multicellular (Fig. 128, 1 a). Before the formation of zoospores or gametes, the contents of multi-locular containers are divided by thin partitions into chambers, which contain one nucleus with a section of cytoplasm. One, or less often two, zoospores or gametes develop in each chamber. On the surface of the thallus of many brown algae, special multicellular hairs develop, looking like a thread of one row of cells with a growth zone at the base; cells of the growth zone divide more often than others and therefore have small sizes (Fig. 121, 1 b).[...]

Among the yellow-green algae there are representatives with a thallus of unicellular (Fig. 188, 1,2,5; 190, 191), colonial (Fig. 189), multicellular (Fig. 192, 1, 2) and noncellular structure (Fig. 192 , 3). In addition, very peculiar algae with a multinucleate thallus in the form of naked plasmodium are known here (Fig. 188, 3).[...]

True algae are plants whose body is represented by a thallus. About 30,000 species of these organisms are known. Both unicellular and multicellular algae are found. They are inhabitants mainly of freshwater reservoirs and seas, but soil algae and even snow and ice algae are found. Unicellular algae reproduce by fission; multicellular forms reproduce both asexually and sexually. Virgil once wrote - “nigilvilor algo” (there is nothing worse than algae). Nowadays, algae have acquired different values.[...]

Bacteria and blue-green algae (cyanea) - two phylogenetically related groups - differ sharply from all other living beings (including fungi) in the absence of a true nucleus and in the fact that the DNA lies freely in their cell, immersed in the so-called nucleoplasm , which is not separated from the cytoplasm by the nuclear membrane. They also lack mitochondria and complex flagella. Their flagella (when they are present) are simpler and have a fundamentally different structure than those of other organisms; their cell wall consists of a heteropolymeric substance called murein, which has not been found in any other group of organisms. These organisms are called prokaryotes (Procaryota-1a - prenuclear). All other organisms, both unicellular and multicellular, have a true nucleus, surrounded by a nuclear membrane and thereby sharply delimited from the cytoplasm. Such organisms are called eukaryotes (Eucaryote - nuclear). In addition to a clearly differentiated nucleus and cytoplasm, they also have mitochondria, and many also have plastids and complex flagella. It gradually became clear that the differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes are much deeper and more fundamental than, for example, the differences between higher animals and higher plants (both are eukaryotes).[...]

Golden algae reproduce by simple cell division (Fig. 66, 4), as well as by the disintegration of colonies or multicellular thallus into separate parts. The sexual process is also known in the form of typical isogamy, hologamy or autogamy. As a result of the lol process, endogenous siliceous cysts are formed, very diverse in the nature of the sculptured shell (Fig. 68, 2; 73, 3), which help golden algae survive unfavorable conditions.[...]

The filamentous structure in the world of algae is the simplest form of a multicellular thallus and is characteristic of a huge number of representatives from different departments. The cells in the filamentous thalli are closely connected to each other; in many cases, the presence of pores and plasmodesmata passing through transverse cell walls has been proven. At the same time, the disintegration of filaments into sections and even into individual cells is a common method of vegetative propagation of many filamentous algae. [...]

Yellow-green algae reproduce by simple cell division or the disintegration of colonies and multicellular thalli into separate parts. The sexual process is known in few species and is represented by iso- and oogamy. In some species, in the development cycle, exo- and endogenous cysts with a bivalve, often silicified shell are known (Fig. 189, 3).[...]

A distinctive feature of algae is the lack of differentiation into tissues and organs. The body of the simplest algae consists of one cell. Groups of cells can unite and form colonies - colonial forms. Multicellular algae can have a filamentous shape or a lamellar structure.[...]

This broad class includes multicellular filamentous algae, the cells of which are connected to each other through plasma-desmata, forming trichomes. Trichomes are bare or covered with mucous sheaths; trichomes contain or lack heterocysts. Reproduction is carried out by hormogonies, less often by spores.[...]

Decomposition products of blue-green algae. Blue-green algae belong to the group of lower, most primitive plants. In most cases, they are single-celled organisms that usually form colonies. In some cells, with the help of mucus and outgrowths, they are connected in coenobia in the form of threads, giving an external picture of multicellularity (Fig. 9.1). They reproduce primarily by cell division. Blue-green algae live not only in water, but also on land (on the banks of reservoirs, in soils and on their surface). These are the most common plants on the globe. They are the first to colonize structureless soils and, together with bacteria, prepare them for development by other plants. These algae are generally aerobic organisms. They are capable of synthesizing carbohydrates, but also use decaying organic substances.[...]

Morphologically, green algae are also distinguished by the greatest diversity compared to other departments. The range of their sizes is also extremely large, from the smallest single cells with a diameter of 1 - 2 microns to macroscopic plants measuring tens of centimeters in length. All the main types of asexual and sexual reproduction and all the main types of changes in developmental forms are also found here. Most representatives in the vegetative state are haploid, some are diploid.[...]

This class includes exclusively multicellular forms of yellow-green algae, characterized by filamentous, heterofilamentous and lamellar body structures. They usually lead an attached lifestyle. The thallus here has the form of simple or branched, single-row or multi-row threads and bushes or single-layer and multi-layer parenchymatous plates, the cells of which are not immersed in common mucus. [...]

The cells of multicellular filamentous algae and unicellular plants are very diverse and unique (Fig. 26 and 27). The cell of any of the latter is also very different from the cells of multicellular plants. She alone has to perform several functions, which in multicellular plants are divided between cells of different tissues. [...]

Finally, the ubiquitous algae Protococcus viridis (Fig. 215, 5), which together with other species forms a green coating on the bark and stumps of trees, has a well-expressed ability of cells to divide in two mutually perpendicular directions. Thanks to this, it can form parenchymatous multicellular plates or multi-stranded thalli. The systematic position of this species is considered differently, and some algologists classify it (under the name Pleurococcus vulgaris) as an ulothrix algae. We consider this algae to be the pinnacle of the complexity of organization that was achieved precisely within the protococcal family as an independent class.[...]

Vegetative propagation of unicellular algae involves dividing individuals in two. In multicellular algae, it occurs in several ways, including mechanical destruction of the thallus into parts (by waves, currents, as a result of gnawing by animals) or as a result of processes accompanied by the disintegration of threads into multicellular or unicellular parts. For example, the division of blue-green algae threads into parts is often preceded by the death of individual cells. Sometimes special formations are used for vegetative propagation. On the thalli of Sphacelaria (brown algae) buds grow, which fall off and grow into new thalli. Charal algae form unicellular or multicellular nodules that overwinter and produce new plants. In a number of filamentous algae (for example, in green algae), individual cells become rounded, accumulate a large amount of reserve nutrients and pigments, and at the same time their shell thickens. They are able to survive unfavorable conditions when ordinary vegetative cells die, which leads to the destruction of the thread. Filamentous blue-green algae have a similar type of akinetes, but they are sometimes called spores. Some red, brown, green and chara algae have creeping shoots on which new thalli grow.[...]

The cell is the basic structural unit of the body of algae, represented either by unicellular or multicellular forms. A completely unique group is made up of siphon algae: their thalli are not divided into cells, but their development cycle has unicellular stages. It is quite obvious that the cell here retains its significance as the main element, the development and differentiation of which lead to the formation of an unusual thallus.[...]

With all the diversity of external form, red algae are distinguished by a single structure of the thallus - in all multicellular scarlet algae it is based on a cellular branched thread. The parenchymal type of organization is virtually absent here.[...]

The flora is very diverse. Along with multicellular organisms, there are also unicellular organisms. They belong to the most primitive, evolutionarily more ancient forms. The plant kingdom is divided into two subkingdoms - Lower and Higher plants. Lower plants include various algae, higher plants include spore plants (mosses, mosses, horsetails, ferns) and seed plants (gymnosperms and angiosperms). [...]

Sexual reproduction has not been detected in blue-green algae (bacteria). They reproduce exclusively by vegetative means, often by simple halving of the cell. Reproduction is possible by spores, but there is never more than one in each cell. Spores contribute to survival in unfavorable conditions because they are more resistant to them than vegetative cells. Spores are usually larger than vegetative cells, their shell is thicker and the contents appear more concentrated. Filamentous forms also reproduce by mobile multicellular sections of filaments, which are called hormogonies (Fig. 20). Hormogoniums are capable of independent movement by sliding. Motile hormogonies are formed both in trichomes, which are characterized by active movement, and in species with immobile trichomes. Hormogoniums are multicellular, but can consist of several or only one cell. One organism is capable of forming several or even many hormogonia along the entire length of the trichome. Hormogoniums do not have involucres, like trichomes; they are covered only with mucus secreted by the cells. There are single-celled formations of filamentous cyanophytes, which also serve the body for reproduction: gonidia - single cells covered with a mucous membrane; cocci - single-celled fragments without an individual shell; planococci are ■ naked cells capable of active movement (they, in fact, are no different from single-celled hormogoniums). Under unfavorable conditions, some vegetative cells of cyanophea become covered with a thicker membrane, turning into resting spores, or akinetes. The formation of resting hormospores, consisting of 7-9 cells covered with an involucre, is also observed. Finally, it should be noted that sometimes several dozen small spores (endospores) are formed in several cells of the trichome.[...]

Then, 1.5-2 billion years ago, the first unicellular eukaryotes appeared and, as a result of the initial dominance of r-selection, a powerful population explosion of autotrophic algae occurred, which led to an excess of oxygen in the water and its release into the atmosphere. There was a transition from a reducing atmosphere to an oxygen one, which contributed to the development of eukaryotic organisms and the emergence of multicellular organisms about 1.4 billion years ago.[...]

Lower plants include a large group of unicellular and multicellular plants, united under the common name “algae”.[...]

At the bottom of reservoirs you can find green “pillows” formed by the accumulation of filamentous algae - Spirogyra. This is a multicellular algae, each thread of which consists of elongated cylindrical cells with a spirally twisted chromatophore. Another representative of filamentous multicellular algae is Ulothrix. Its structure is similar to spirogyra, but the chromatophore has the shape of a semiring.[...]

The most numerous group consists of endosymbioses of unicellular green and yellow-green algae with unicellular animals (Fig. 48, 1). These algae are called zoochlorella and zooxanthellae, respectively. Among multicellular animals, green and yellow-green algae form endosymbioses with freshwater sponges, hydra, etc. (Fig. 48, 2). Blue-green algae form with protozoa and some other organisms a unique group of endosymbioses called syncyanoses; the resulting morphological complex of two organisms is called c and a n o-m, and blue-green algae in it are called c and a-nells (Fig. 48, 3).[...]

Planktonic organisms include 2 groups: phytoplankton - a collection of microscopic algae and zooplankton - animal plankton, including protozoa, rotifers and crustaceans. Among algae there are unicellular, multicellular and colonial forms. Depending on the predominance of a particular pigment, algae have different colors. They differ in the supply of nutrients and method of reproduction.[...]

The genus Streblonema (S1;reolipeta) is an example of microscopic ectocarp, growing on the surface of other algae and lacking vertical vegetative branches, and if they do exist, they are short and do not differ from creeping filaments. There are multicellular hairs with a basal growth zone (Fig. 121, 1). [...]

Microorganisms do not represent a single systematic group. These include unicellular and multicellular organisms of plant and animal origin: bacteria, bacteriophages, viruses, some algae and fungi, and protozoa. The common distinguishing feature of all microorganisms is their small size, which determines their characteristics of high metabolic rate.[...]

Unilocular and myoclocular containers are often incorrectly called unicellular and multicellular, respectively. Both can develop from one or from many cells. When in single-row thalli a group of cells turns into single-locular sporangia, then they speak of a chain of single-locular sporangia. Each of them opens with an independent hole when ripe. In the case of multi-locular containers, a chain of initial cells, each of which increases in size, gives a single multicellular multi-locular container (Fig. 122, 1, 2). After the formation of chambers in it, you can notice that some transverse partitions are thicker than others - these are the partitions of the mother cells. When ripe, the contents of such a container exit through one hole at the top. In some brown algae, unicellular multi-locular containers are narrow and the chambers are located in them in one row. Such formations are called single-row multilocular sporangia (gametangia, Fig. 123). Multi-nest containers with nests located in several rows are considered multi-row.[...]

The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all living organisms, an elementary living system. It can exist as a separate organism (bacteria, protozoa, some algae and fungi) or as part of the tissues of multicellular organisms. Only viruses are non-cellular life forms.[...]

Against the background of primary zoning, based mainly on physical factors, secondary zoning is clearly visible - both vertical and horizontal; this secondary zonation is evident in the distribution of communities. The communities of each primary zone, with the exception of the euphotic one, are divided into two fairly clear vertical components - benthic, or bottom (benthos), and pelagic. In the sea, as in large lakes, plant producers are represented by microscopic phytoplankton, although large multicellular algae (macrophytes) can be significant in some coastal areas. Primary consumers, therefore, primarily include zooplankton. Medium-sized animals feed on either plankton or detritus formed from plankton, while large animals are mainly predators. There are only a small number of large animals that, like large land animals such as deer, cows and horses, feed exclusively on plant foods.[...]

This family includes only one genus, Splachnidium, with a single species. Splachnidium rugosum grows in the southern hemisphere near the Cape of Good Hope and along the southern coast of Australia. The thallus of this plant is gelatinous, with a cavity inside; it consists of a central thick vertical shoot with a few weakly branched thick lateral branches. At the base of the thallus there is a disk for attachment to the ground. Conceptacles are formed at some points on the surface of the thallus, near the tips of the shoots. Here, intensive cell division and growth begin, and invaginations into the thallus occur. The formation of conceptacles is facilitated by the fact that the thallus has a loose filamentous structure and is equipped with cavities filled with mucus. In the past, Splachnidium rugosa was classified as a Fucus family on the grounds that it has conceptules and special large cells are located at the tips of the shoots. However, over time, it became clear that their conceptacles are formed completely differently than those of fucus, and the special cells turned out to be the unicellular endophytic green alga Codiolum, which is constantly present in the crustal layer of young shoot tips. Assimilation threads in Splagnidium rugosa develop only on young parts, then they fall off, and the surface turns out to be formed by a dense cortex of small cells. Splachnidium has multicellular hairs with an internal growth zone, which grow on the inner surface of the conceptacles and protrude out through their openings.

The importance of algae in nature and human life.

The widespread distribution of algae determines their enormous importance in the biosphere and human economic activity. Thanks to their ability to photosynthesize, they are the main producers of huge amounts of organic substances in water bodies, which are widely used by animals and humans.

By absorbing carbon dioxide from the water, algae saturate it with oxygen, necessary for all living organisms in water bodies. Their role is great in the biological cycle of substances, in the cyclical nature of which nature solved the problem of the long-term existence and development of life on Earth.

In the historical and geological past, algae took part in the formation of rocks and chalk rocks, limestones, reefs, special varieties of coal, a number of oil shale, and were the ancestors of plants that colonized the land.

Algae are extremely widely used in various sectors of human economic activity, including the food, pharmaceutical and perfume industries. In eastern Southeast Asia, seaweed has long been used to make soups. They are grown in estuaries on bamboo sticks stuck into the mud or on wooden frames lowered into the water of narrow bays.

Marine and water culture have begun to produce encouraging results in many countries. Japanese cuisine uses seaweed to bake bread and add it to cakes, puddings and ice cream. Even canning mushrooms is done using algae. One row of mushrooms is placed in the tubs, then one row of seaweed, etc. In many cities around the world there are specialized cafes where you can try a wide variety of seaweed dishes. In addition, seaweed has been found to contain vitamins A, B1, B2, B12, C and D, iodine, bromine, arsenic and other substances.

Algae have penetrated into agriculture and animal husbandry. Tomatoes, peppers and watermelons ripen faster and produce greater yields if they are sprayed with seaweed meal. Cows and chickens become more productive if they are fed algae concentrates.

Single-celled green chlorella produces large amounts of oxygen, accumulates organic matter using a smaller volume of suspension, has a shorter growing season, reproduces very quickly, and the entire biomass of the algae can be used as food. Its nutritional qualities are the highest in the plant world. The protein content is 50% of the dry weight, it also contains all 8 amino acids necessary for human life, and all vitamins. These abilities of chlorella make it possible to use these microalgae for air regeneration in closed biological human life support systems during long-term space flights and scuba diving.

In our country and abroad, microalgae are cultivated on municipal and industrial wastewater for the purpose of biological treatment and further use of their biomass to produce methane or for use in industry and agricultural production.

MEANING:

In nature:

·enrich the atmosphere and hydrosphere with oxygen;

· the main source of organic matter in water bodies;

·participate in the self-purification of natural and waste waters;

· indicators of pollution and salinity;

· participate in the cycle of calcium and silicon in soil formation;

In human life:

The most important components of ecosystems: food, dietary products, sources of raw materials for obtaining substances necessary in industries (pharmacological, paper, textile), are used as fertilizers.