The political structure of China in the Middle Ages is brief. Features of the state and legal development of China in the Middle Ages
Feudal society in China began to emerge in the III-IV centuries, much earlier than in Europe. All lands were the property of the emperor. The peasants rented land from the state and paid money for this to the treasury. “Strong families” (large landowners), which enjoyed relative independence, increased the number of peasants dependent on them, thereby reducing the number of taxable population. Therefore, the government from time to time confiscated the land of these families and distributed it to the peasants. As a result, state feudalism developed in China. The state also distributed land on condition of service in the army. The owners of these lands paid only rent to the treasury, and the income went into their pockets.
Feudal lords gradually gaining strength from the VIII century began to seize state lands. Meanwhile, the raids of the Turkic tribes from the north did not stop. At the end of the 6th century, the military leader Yan Zan founded the dynasty
Sui (586-618) and created a single state with the capital Chang'an. In 589, he annexed South China. During the reign of this dynasty, the 1700 km long Great Canal was dug, connecting the Yangtze and the Yellow River. The unification of all of China contributed to the development of agriculture, crafts and trade. In 618, the Sui Dynasty was replaced by the Tang Dynasty. The emperor of the Tang Dynasty was called "the son of Heaven." This dynasty captured Korea and Vietnam, controlled the Silk Road to Central Asia. Since 751, after being defeated by the Arabs, China has been deprived of this right. The existence of a centralized state under the rule of Sui and Tang had a positive effect on the country's economy. Beginning in the 8th century, peasants paid rent to both the treasury and the feudal lord. The life of a peasant was hard. When the cup of patience ran out, the peasants rose to revolt in 874 under the leadership of Huang Chao. The rebels captured the cities of Canton and Chang'an. After proclaiming himself emperor, Huang Chao abolished taxes and distributed grain from state barns to the peasants. However, the feudal lords called for help from the nomadic tribes from the north, who defeated the rebels in 884. Huang Chao was killed. But even after that, for about 20 more years, the struggle of the peasants continued in various parts of the empire. During the uprising, part of the lands of the murdered feudal lords passed into the hands of the peasants. The life of the masses was temporarily easier. After the Huang Chao uprising, civil wars broke out in the country. In the north of China, five dynasties have changed. In 960, the Song dynasty was established in China. In the northeast of China, the Jurchen tribes also formed their own state and called it the "Jin Empire" (golden). Prolonged wars with the Jurchens weakened China. Under the agreement between Song and Jin, the captured Chinese lands remained with the Jurchens. The Chinese emperor recognized himself as a vassal of the Jurchens and pledged to pay them a huge tribute in silver and silk.
From the beginning of the 13th century, the conquest of China by the Mongols began. It was only as a result of the “uprising of the red bands” in 1368 that the Mongol yoke ended. The Ming dynasty came to power (1368-1644). In the first years of its reign, this dynasty carried out progressive reforms:
- peasants were exempted from taxes and duties for three years;
- the lands taken from the Mongol feudal lords were distributed to the peasants;
- taxes on artisans and merchants were reduced.
This contributed to the economic upsurge in the 15th-16th centuries. In those years, China's borders included the inner regions of modern
China and Manchuria. Korea, Vietnam and Tibet were all dependent on China. Under the rule of the Ming Dynasty, the land was mainly owned by the state. There was a form of ownership called “special” or “national”. Feudal lords and small proprietors who owned such land paid tax to the state. Beijing and Nanjing were the two capitals. New cities were also founded - Shanghai and others.
In 1626-1643, taking advantage of the weakening of the Ming dynasty, the Jurchens overcame the Great Wall of China three times and, having killed the population, got a lot of booty. In 1626, an uprising began in the Shanxi province. Expanding, this revolt ended the Ming Dynasty in 1644. To suppress the uprising, the Chinese feudal lords called for help from the Manchus, who were entrenched in the country for a long time. The Manchu dynasty ruled China from 1644 to 1911. The country was ruled by emperors from the Qin dynasty. They were called bogdykhans and they relied on the "eight-banner army". The Manchus and the Chinese, who had proved their loyalty to them, served in this army.
Cheboksary technical school
food and commerce technology
ESSAY
in the discipline "World History"
on the topic: China in the Middle Ages
student of group PK-5-17
Guryanova Alexandra
Supervisor:
A.G. Botnikova
Cheboksary
C obsession:
Introduction
Tang dynasty
Song dynasty
Yuan dynasty
Conclusion
Introduction
China in the Middle Ageswas a huge country, comparable in territory, population, cultural achievements with all of Europe. From the north, nomads constantly attacked the country, but China each time revived its former power.
In the history of medieval China, several periods are distinguished, called after the dynasties of the emperors who ruled at that time.
Tang dynasty
Tang era (Li Dynasty 李 ) ( June 18, 618 - June 4 907 , whale. 唐朝 , Tanchao ) - chinese imperial dynasty founded Li Yuan ... His son, the emperor Li Shimin , after the final suppression of peasant uprisings and separatist feudal forces began to pursue a progressive policy. It is the Tang era that is traditionally considered in China as the period of the country's highest power, when it was ahead of the rest of the modern countries of the world in its development.
The Li dynasty was founded by Li Yuan, a large landowner from the northern borderlands of China, inhabited by the Tabgach people - the Chineseized descendants of the Toba steppe people, once characterized by the orientalist L. Gumilyov as an ethnos "equally close to China and the Great Steppe." Li Yuan, along with his son Li Shi-min, prevailed in the civil war, caused by the harsh and reckless policy of the last Sui emperor Yang-di ("Just War"), and soon after his death in 618, ascended the throne in Chang'an under the dynastic name Gaozu. Subsequently, he was removed from power by Li Shimin, but the dynasty he founded survived and was in power until 907, with a short break in 690-705 (the reign of Empress Wu Zetian, allocated in a special Zhou era).
From the very beginning, the Li dynasty relied on the combination of the primordial Chinese and steppe principles. The founder of the dynasty himself, whom L. Gumilyov compares in this respect with Alexander the Great, was a man well acquainted with the peoples of the Great Steppe, their manners and customs; so were many of the people around him. The first part of the Tang reign was a period of intense cultural exchange between the two regions; the steppe gave Tang China an advanced army in the form of heavy armored cavalry, in turn, the descendants of the nomads were carried away by its wealth and ancient, sophisticated culture. For the nomads, the Tang emperor simultaneously acted as a khan / kagan of the Tabgach people, equal to them; It is this perception, in particular, that is enshrined in the epitaph to the Turkut khan Kyul-Tegin, who refers to himself and his people as “kul” (vassals, slaves) of the Tabgach Kagan and the Tabgach people, and not Chinese subjects.
The imperial idea of uniting China and the Steppe under the rule of the Tang emperor for centuries determined the internal and foreign policy of the state. At the same time, over time, the Tang (Tabgach) court began to be perceived by the ethnic Chinese (Han) who constituted the numerical majority in the Empire as something alien, and its policy towards the "barbarians", in particular, patronage of Buddhism, as unacceptable. According to L. Gumilev, it was the consistent implementation of this idea of "combining the incongruous" that led Tan to a rapid rise and prosperity, and to an equally rapid and bloody fall.
Song dynasty
The Song Empire (Chinese ex.宋朝 , pinyin: Sòng Chao, pall .: Song chao) - a state in China that existed from 960 to 1279. The ruling dynasty is Zhao (趙 ), by the name of the family of sovereigns.
Base empire put an end to the fragmentation of China that had continued since the fall of the Tang dynasty (唐朝 ) in 907. The emergence of the empire was preceded by the Age of five dynasties and ten kingdoms (五代十国 ). The turning point in the history of the dynasty is 1127, when the troops of the Jurchen state of Jin captured the capital of the empire, Bianliang. The imperial house was taken prisoner to Manchuria, but one of the sons of the abdicated monarch managed to escape south to Jiangnan. He moved the capital to Lin'an, and his commander Yue Fei stopped the further advance of the Jurchens to the south. Thus, Song history is divided into Northern and Southern periods, respectively, before and after the transfer of the capital.
Fight of the Southern Song against the Jin State
After the peace treaty of 1141, the Jin empire did not give up hope of conquering all of China, and Song at times dreamed of revenge. In 1161, the Jin ruler Hailing-wang gathered a 300,000-strong army and invaded the Song, but the Chinese burned the Jin fleet with flamethrowers. The Jurchen ground forces were also defeated. In 1208, the war resumed, the Sunts lost several battles and were forced to make peace. In 1217, the Jin invaded Song, captured many cities, but could not capture the De'an fortress, protected by the talented military leader Chen Gui. In response, the Chinese captured southern Shandong. In 1234, the Sung contingent took part in the siege of Kaifeng. The Jin Empire fell, but as a result, the Song Empire found itself face to face with the warlike and merciless Mongols.
Mongol invasion
Mongol conquest of the Southern Song Empire
The first conflicts with the Mongols took place in the 1230s. But decisive action began in 1258 - Khan Mongke launched a large-scale offensive. The Chinese army was defeated, but many cities offered fierce resistance. Mongke died in 1259 and the Mongols retreated. However, Mongke's successor Khubilai made the conquest of the Song his main task. He set out on a campaign in 1267, but his army was shackled by the heroic defense of the cities of Xiangyang and Fancheng, which dragged on for five years. In 1275, the Song army was destroyed at Dingjiazhou, and Lin'an fell the following year. In 1279, the remnants of the Sung fleet were destroyed in Yayshan, and by 1280 all of China was captured by the Yuan dynasty.
Yuan dynasty
Empire (in the Chinese tradition - dynasty) Yuan (Their Yuan Mong. Their Yuan Uls, Great Yuan State, Dai Ön Yeke Mongghul Ulus. Dai Ön Yeke Mongghul Ulus; Chinese exercise.元朝 , pinyin: Yuáncháo; vietn. Nhà Nguyên (Nguyên triều), House (Dynasty) Nguyen) is a Mongol state, the main part of which was China (1271-1368). Founded by the grandson of Genghis Khan, the Mongol Khan Kublai, who completed the conquest of China in 1279. The dynasty fell as a result of the Red Armbands revolt of 1351-1368. The official Chinese history of this dynasty was recorded during the subsequent Ming dynasty and is called "Yuan shi".
Late Yuan
The last years of the Yuan Dynasty were marked by riots and famines among the population. Over time, the heirs of Kublai Khan lost all their influence on other lands of the former Mongol Empire, and the Mongols outside the Celestial Empire saw them as Chinese. They gradually lost influence in China. The reigns of the Yuan emperors during this period were short, filled with intrigue and rivalry. Uninterested in government, they were separated from both the army and the common people. China was torn apart by strife and unrest; the criminals ravaged the country without encountering resistance from the weakened yuan armies.
Despite the merit of his reign, Shidebala ruled for only two years (1321-1323); his reign ended in a coup d'état of five princes. They put Yesun-Temur on the throne, and after an unsuccessful attempt to calm down the princes, he was also killed. Prior to the reign of Yesun Temur, China was relatively free from major uprisings after the reign of Kublai. At the beginning of the XIV century, the number of uprisings grew. The emergence of these uprisings and the subsequent suppression of them were exacerbated by the financial difficulties of the government. The government was forced to take some measures to increase revenues, such as selling positions, raising taxes, and cutting costs on some items.
When Yesun Temur died in Shandu in 1328, Tug Temur was recalled to Dadu by the commander of El Temur. He was made emperor in Dada, while Yesun-Temur's son Rajapika came to the throne in Shandu with the support of Daulet Shah, the favorite of the late emperor. With the support of princes and officials in North China and some other members of the dynasty, Tug Temur ultimately defeated Rajapika in the civil war (1329). Then Tug-Temur abdicated in favor of his brother Khoshila, supported by the Chagataid Eljigidei, and announced Dadu's intention to greet him. However, Khoshila died suddenly 4 days after the banquet with Tug-Temur. Presumably, he was poisoned by El-Temur, and Tug-Temur was returned to the throne. Tug-Temuru sent his representatives to the western Mongol khanates - the Golden Horde and the Hulaguid state, to be recognized as the supreme ruler of the Mongolian world. However, by and large, in the last three years of his reign, Tug-Temur was only a puppet of the powerful El-Temur. The latter carried out a purge, eliminating those who supported Hoshila, and transferred power to the military leaders, whose despotic rule clearly marked the decline of the dynasty.
While the bureaucracy was controlled by El-Temur, Tugh-Temur is known for its cultural contributions. He took a number of measures for Confucianism and the promotion of Chinese cultural values. He patronized the Chinese language and founded the Academy of Literature (Chinese:奎章阁 学士院 ). The Academy was responsible for the collection and publication of a number of books, but the most important achievement was the compilation of a huge institutional collection called "Jingshi Dadian" (Ch.经 世大典 ). He supported the neo-Confucianism of Zhu Xi, and himself converted to Buddhism.
After the death of Tug-Temur in 1332 and the death of Irinjibal at the end of the same year, 13-year-old Togon-Temur, the last of Kublai's nine heirs, was recalled from Guangxi and ascended the throne. Bayan eliminated opposition to the young emperor, then closed the Hanlin Academy and canceled the examinations for the post, and in 1340 he was executed as a result of intrigue. Togto proved to be an active politician: he resumed examinations, lowered taxes and continued construction of the Grand Canal. When in 1355 he was also executed as a result of intrigue at court, the central government lost control of the country. A number of Mongolian generals in the north led an independent policy (including Bolod Temur, Tsagan Temur and Huh Temur).
In the second half of Togon-Temur's reign, the country suffered a series of floods, mass famines, epidemics, in the field of public policy, dissatisfaction with inflation and forced labor (including the construction of the canal). This served to raise the national liberation movement on the basis of eschatological sentiments. In 1351, it resulted in the so-called. Rise of the red bandages. In 1356, one of the rebel leaders, Zhu Yuanzhang (the future Hongwu Emperor) occupied Nanjing and created a state apparatus, extending his power in southern China and eliminating competitors. After this, civil strife among the Mongol rulers in northern China in 1360 attracted the attention of Zhu Yuanzhang, and in 1368, under the blows of his troops, Beijing fell, and Togon Temur with his wife and court fled to the northern capital of the dynasty, Shandu. In the same year, Zhu Yuanzhang moved his capital from Nanjing to Beijing and proclaimed himself Emperor of the Ming Dynasty. The next year he took Shanda, and Togan Temur fled to Inchan (Ch.应 昌 ), where he died in 1370. His son Ayushiridara ascended the throne, proclaiming the era of the Northern Yuan.
Basalawarmi, Prince of Liang, created a separate hotbed of resistance to the Ming forces in the provinces of Yunnan and Guizhou, but his forces were finally defeated by the Ming in 1381.
Conclusion
The end of the Middle Ages came in the 15th century. At this time, important events took place: the Byzantine Empire, which had existed for almost a thousand years, fell under the blows of the Ottoman Turks, the formation of united states in England and France ended, the Reconquista ended, the Renaissance began in Italy, Spanish and Portuguese sailors set off in search of new, unknown lands ... These travelers had no idea that outside Europe there were strong states with a high culture, which were also part of the medieval world - China, India, Japan, the states of pre-Columbian America. The Middle Ages were a thing of the past. The world entered the era of modern times.
The Middle Ages were a difficult time. It was the time of terrible wars, terrible epidemics, blazing fires of the Inquisition. But at the same time, it is precisely the Middle Ages that we owe the appearance of parliament and jury, schools and universities, paper and mechanical clocks. It was at that time that outstanding literary works were created - "The Elder Edda", "Song of Side", "Song of Roland", "Divine Comedy", Chinese and Japanese poetry. We never cease to be amazed at the Romanesque and Gothic cathedrals, American temples-pyramids, Chinese pagodas, Muslim mosques, erected in the Middle Ages, striking in their beauty, grandeur and grace.
The Middle Ages passed, but did not disappear without a trace. It left a deep mark on human culture, created the foundation on which the modern world stands.
Section 26. China and Japan in the Middle Ages
China - Middle State
China is one of the largest countries in the world with an ancient history and rich culture. The state arose here about four thousand years ago. Since then, the periods of existence of a single state have repeatedly been replaced by times of fragmentation. But for many centuries, the structure of the state and the way of life of the inhabitants of China have hardly changed. The Chinese considered their country the center of the world and called it the Middle State or the Celestial Empire. The Chinese considered their emperor to be the ruler of all the surrounding lands. Therefore, they perceived any embassy of a foreign power as a symbol of expression of obedience to the emperor.
Camel. Tang period figurine
Throughout its history, the Chinese have fought wars with border countries and tribes. The main threat came from the nomads who lived north of China's borders. To protect against their invasions, the Great Wall of China was built in ancient times.
Buddha. Chinese sculpture. XII century
During the periods of the existence of a single state, the rulers of China by force managed to repel the invasions of enemies and even force the northern tribes to pay tribute. The weakening of China, its disintegration into warring states often led to the subordination of significant parts of the country to foreign power. However, over time, the conquerors mingled with the more cultured and larger local population. Even creating their own states, the conquerors tried to imitate the Chinese order. The culture, lifestyle and wisdom of the Chinese became a model for the surrounding peoples.
Mongol conquest of China
In the 7th century, China was united under the rule of the Tang Dynasty. However, revolts in the army and invasions of foreigners led to the weakening of the state, and at the beginning of the 10th century, the Tang dynasty was overthrown. A period of turmoil and fragmentation in the middle of the 10th century was followed by the unification of China by the Song dynasty.
Nomads are China's neighbors. Medieval drawing
In the first half of the 13th century, the Mongols attacked the country. After conquering North China, they set about conquering South China. In 1279, the Song state was destroyed, and its last emperor was captured. All of China fell under the rule of cruel foreigners, becoming part of the Mongol state. Mongol rule lasted for almost a hundred years.
Chinese bronze coin
In the middle of the XIV century, the brutal rule of the Mongol rulers caused a popular uprising. It was led by members of the White Lotus secret organization. In 1368, the rebels occupied the capital of China, Beijing, expelling the Mongols from the country. Their leader was proclaimed emperor and laid the foundation for the Ming dynasty.
China in the 7th-12th centuries
The territories of which peoples bordered on China? Where were the Chinese emperors' campaigns of conquest directed? How did the territory of China change in the 12th century compared to the 7th century?
The teachings of the Chinese sages
Since antiquity, several religions have been spread in China, which coexist peacefully with each other. All religions were under the auspices of state power, and the emperor was the high priest of all the gods. Ancient beliefs were pagan: all the Chinese believed in spirits, werewolves, revered deceased ancestors, worshiped several hundred deities, among whom there were real people who became famous in the past - sages, heroes, emperors, prominent officials.
Chinese pagoda - a place of worship for Buddhists
In the 1st century A.D. NS. Buddhism penetrated China from India - the doctrine of liberation from suffering and achieving a state of complete detachment from the outside world (nirvana). Over time, this religion has become one of the most widespread in China. Taoism, which originated in antiquity, also had a large number of admirers. According to this religion, a person should strive to achieve harmony with nature and the natural course of life.
Chinese scientists. Medieval drawing
The teachings of Confucius, a sage who lived in the 6th-5th centuries BC, enjoyed universal respect in China. NS. Noble people, according to Confucius, should have such qualities as love, benevolence, humanity, loyalty, as well as a sense of duty. The most important rule of life sent down to people by Heaven itself, Confucius considered respect for elders. The son must obey his parents, the younger brother must obey the elder, the wife must obey the husband, the subordinate must obey the boss, the friends must obey the duty of fidelity. Only if these rules are respected, order reigns in the state and it flourishes.
Chinese vase. XIV century
The most important human virtue is filial piety. According to Confucius, it is better to die than to refuse to honor your parents. As important as honoring the parents, submission to the authority of the state. However, the ruler must also lead a righteous life and seek the respect of the people. After the death of the sage, the Chinese began to deify Confucius and build altars and temples in his honor.
State in China
State power played a vital role in the life of the Chinese. At the top of the state pyramid was the emperor, who had tremendous power. He acted as a mediator between heavenly and earthly forces. The Chinese believed that his power came from the Divine Sky. Therefore, the emperor in China was called the Son of Heaven. He not only had to correctly manage his subjects, but also "was responsible" for natural phenomena. The emperor, in accordance with the calendar created by scientists, announced the beginning of sowing or harvesting.
Emperor of the Tang Dynasty. Medieval miniature
The emperor was considered the "giver of life" not only for his subjects, but for all living beings. Therefore, any resistance to him was considered a grave crime. Confucius compared the emperor to the wind, and the people to the grass: "Wherever the wind blows, there the grass bends." All the inhabitants of the Celestial Empire were equally disenfranchised before the emperor, who was also the supreme owner of all the land in the country. Any word from the emperor was law.
Imperial Palace in Beijing
According to the teachings of Confucius, the supreme goal of power was to ensure the public good. Therefore, the emperor had to take care of the people and listen to their opinion in order to rule fairly. A popular saying was: "When a sovereign breaks the law, he becomes like a commoner." Allegations that the emperor violated the will of the Divine Heaven served as an excuse for numerous coups and rebellions. As a result, emperors were overthrown and even killed.
Chinese officials
There was no clan nobility in China, and the power of the emperor relied on numerous officials. They were responsible for all aspects of life - from collecting taxes to building canals, roads, dams, palaces. The positions of officials were not inherited, it was believed that the wisest, most talented and virtuous people should become them. According to the teachings of Confucius, a person could achieve perfection only through persistent teaching and righteous labor. Therefore, knowledge and educated people were highly valued in China. Anyone who applied for a degree that enabled him to become a civil servant had to pass a difficult test. Future officials wrote a poem in verse on a given topic, as well as an essay that revealed knowledge of the laws, works of Confucius and other ancient sages. Having passed the exam, gifted people, even if they came from the common people, could count on receiving important positions. However, the advantage was given to representatives of wealthy families, since they could provide their children with a good education. Scientists and officials were exempted from paying taxes and performing duties.
Chinese official. Medieval figurine
The school was long and difficult. Classes lasted from seven in the morning to six in the evening. To master reading and writing, a good memory and a steady hand were needed. There are 80,000 characters in Chinese writing. But only a few knew all the hieroglyphs, even scientists remembered only 25-30 thousand. It was enough for an educated person to know 6-7 thousand characters.
Children were taught to read and write according to the "Book of Three Hieroglyphs", each line of which had only three characters. Having mastered it, the students proceeded to reading the "Book of a Thousand Hieroglyphs", in which none of the thousand characters was repeated. This was followed by memorization of the sayings of Confucius and other ancient authors. After learning to read, students began to comprehend the art of writing. They had to learn how to write hieroglyphs beautifully and clearly with a brush and ink.
Chinese characters
Poetry and painting of China
Originated in antiquity, Chinese art reached perfection in the Middle Ages. Artists and poets loved to describe the diverse nature of China - its mountains, river valleys, forests. A feature of art was the desire to show that man is a part of nature and must live in accordance with its laws.
Traditional Japanese dwelling
Chinese poetry and painting were closely related. The poet and artist used brush and ink to create their creations on paper or silk.
Many poets were also painters. They said about one of them: "In his poems - pictures, in his painting - poetry." The hieroglyphs themselves, with which the poems were written, thanks to their picturesqueness, became a work of art.
What thoughts did Chinese artists and poets seek to reflect?
Japanese state
Japan lies to the east of China and Korea, it is located on many small and four large islands. According to legend, the curved chain of mountainous islands arose from drops falling into the ocean from the spear of an ancient god.
The ancestors of the modern Japanese moved to the islands from Asia. They knew how to grow rice, which became the staple food of the Japanese, and raised livestock. Fighting with local tribes, they gradually settled all four main islands of the archipelago. Since ancient times, its neighbors, China and Korea, have had a great influence on the culture, religion and state of Japan.
Demon lamplighter. Medieval sculpture
According to legend, the first ruler of Japan was Emperor Jimmu, who lived in the 7th century BC. NS. However, scientists believe that the first state appeared here at the turn of the 3rd-4th centuries on the lands of the Yamato tribe. By the 7th century, the leaders of Yamato subjugated other tribes on the islands of Kyushu and Honshu, they often made campaigns of conquest against Korea.
Many Japanese believe that the imperial dynasty that still exists today is of divine origin. The ancestor of the emperors is called the sun goddess Amaterasu, who gave them the signs of power - a bronze mirror (a symbol of divinity), jasper beads (a symbol of loyalty to subjects) and a sword (a symbol of power). The Emperor is held in high esteem and respect. However, he almost never had real power. The country was ruled, replacing each other, by representatives of rich and noble families.
Official. Medieval sculpture
An important event took place in 645. The emperor's supporters managed to make a coup and remove the powerful Soga clan from power. A period of transformation began, which the Japanese called "the time of great change." The purpose of the coup was to strengthen state power. China served as an example for the Japanese emperor, where, after several centuries of fragmentation and internecine wars, a strong unified state arose. Now everyone had to obey the same laws, and local authorities - strictly follow the orders of the imperial government. The nobles have lost their former power.
Gradually, the power of the emperors weakened. Since the 8th century, representatives of the noble family of Fujiwara have become the real rulers of the state. They ruled without regard for the emperors, who lived as recluses in their palaces.
Gradually, noble families concentrated large lands in their hands and began to transfer them by inheritance. The nobility could contain military units that were used for wars with neighbors and internecine clashes. Warriors who served noble masters were called samurai (from the word "serve"). Initially, they were recruited from wealthy peasants, hunters, domestic servants, and then the military occupation became hereditary. For the service, the samurai received land plots with peasant households. Over time, representatives of the entire military class began to be called samurai - both ordinary soldiers and the leaders of large detachments.
The battle between the squads of samurai. Medieval drawing
The main occupation and the meaning of life of the samurai was considered to be war. They dreamed of dying with valor on the battlefield for their master. The samurai were not supposed to surrender or retreat. A samurai who committed an offense unworthy of his position, or who lost his master, had to commit a suicide rite - seppuku (or hara-kiri). Thus, he proved his courage and composure. The rules of conduct for a samurai, his "code of honor" were set forth in a book called "Bushido" ("the way of the warrior").
The battle of the troops of the samurai families Taira and Minamoto. Medieval drawing
Seizure of power by the shoguns
In the XII century, wars broke out between various samurai factions. The victory in civil strife was won by the samurai family of Minamoto. In 1192 its head declared himself shogun. From that time until the 15th century, when the period of fragmentation began, the country was ruled by the shoguns. They stripped the emperors of all power, but ruled on their behalf. For the Japanese, the personality of the emperor was sacred, and the shoguns declared that they were doing his will. Therefore, any disobedience to the military ruler was considered an act against the emperor and was severely punished. In the XIV century, the emperor tried to regain power, but he could not keep it, and a new kind of samurai shoguns came to power.
To rule Japan, the shoguns created a military government. It was in charge of the army, officials and the collection of taxes. The shogun's trusted people were sent to different parts of the country, and loyal samurai became his main support. The shoguns managed to strengthen the state and repel the first foreign invasion in several centuries: Japan escaped the Mongol conquest. The Mongol Khan, the son of Genghis Khan, who ruled in China, twice tried to seize the Japanese islands. After the first failure in 1281, he ordered several thousand boats to be put side by side, blocking the Korea Strait. The Mongol cavalry was to invade Japan along the flooring laid along them. However, a sudden typhoon scattered the ships. Japan was saved.
Religion of medieval Japan
As in China, various religions were intertwined in medieval Japan. The widespread religion was Shintoism("Shinto" - the way of the gods). According to the myths in which all Japanese believed, the Japanese people were of divine origin. The ancestors of the emperor were the spirits of Heaven, and the common people were the spirits of a lower order. Shintoists revere numerous ancestral spirits and believe that after death they themselves will become spirits.
In the 6th century, the teachings of Buddhism came to Japan from China. His first adherents were representatives of the court nobility. They hoped to strengthen the central government and unite the country with the help of the new religion. The concentration, self-control characteristic of Buddhism formed the basis for the education and training of samurai warriors. Buddhist monasteries began to emerge in many parts of the country.
Buddha. Japanese sculpture
The advent of Buddhism contributed to the spread of literacy in Japan. The Japanese borrowed from China a hieroglyphic script, which was used in writing sacred Buddhist texts.
In Japan, there were no religious conflicts between Shintoism and Buddhism, which sometimes merged into one in the views of the Japanese. An important feature of Japanese culture originates in Shinto - reverence for nature, its beauty and harmony.
Let's sum up
China in the Middle Ages was a highly developed state with a rich cultural heritage. Despite enemy invasions and turmoil within the country, it has retained its culture and identity.
The power of the emperor in Japan was weak, which allowed representatives of the samurai families - shoguns - to seize power. In public life and culture, Japan borrowed a lot from other peoples. On this basis, a kind of society with a high culture arose.
Shogun - the title of military ruler in Japan.Shintoism - the pagan religion of the Japanese.
645 year... A coup carried out by the emperor's supporters. The beginning of "Great Change".1192 year... Seizure of power by the shoguns.
1279 year... Submission by the Mongols of South China.
1281 year... Unsuccessful Mongol invasion of Japan.
1368 year... Expulsion of the Mongols from China. The beginning of the reign of the Ming dynasty.
“When you behave correctly, they will follow you without an order. When you behave incorrectly, they will not listen, even though you order. "Confucius's teaching to the ruler
1. How was the Chinese state organized? What was the power of the emperor?
2. What religions existed in China? What were the main points of these beliefs?
3. Why did the teachings of Confucius contribute to the strengthening of state power in China? Substantiate your opinion.
4. Tell us about a school in China. Why was education highly valued there?
5. What was the difference between the position of the Japanese emperor and the Chinese one?
6. How did the shoguns manage to seize power? How did they rule Japan?
7. What was the influence of China on the state and culture of Japan?
What were the similarities and differences between Japanese samurai and Western European knights?
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From the book Christian Antiquities: An Introduction to Comparative Study the author Belyaev Leonid Andreevich From the book Machines of Noisy Time [How Soviet Editing Became a Method of Unofficial Culture] the author Ilya KukulinThe beginning of the Middle Ages in China is considered to be the era of the "Three Kingdoms" (220-265), when the Han empire was divided by the generals into the kingdom of Wei - the north, Shu - the southwest, and Wu - the southeast of the country. During this period, the Chinese ethnos was formed, a new Central Chinese language appeared. "Strong houses" - large landowners receive "guests" - ke, fugitives from the war on the rights of land holders. For about 50 years, the kingdoms are at war with each other, Wei wins. In 265, the Northern Wei commander Sima Yan proclaimed himself emperor of the new Jin dynasty (265-419). The long-term unification of the country was prevented by two circumstances: the desolation of the country and nomadic tribes: the Xianbi and the Zhujans. They seized from the Chinese the north of the country and the Yellow River basin, only the southern regions of China remained under the control of Jin. The era of "Northern and Southern Dynasties" (420-581) begins. Northern dynasties are assimilated barbarians who created states on the Chinese model. Their struggle with the south in a short period of time lost its ethnicity and acquired a dynastic character. Northern commander Yang Jian - the founder of the Sui dynasty (581-618) restores the unity of the country. He was succeeded by Yang Guang, who began the construction of the Great Canal between Yellow He and Yangtze and the reconstruction of the Great Wall of China. Tax hikes and heavy labor conscription caused riots and uprisings. The emperor's miscalculation in foreign policy was that he failed to establish peaceful relations with the new nomads of the north - the Turks. The military leader Li Yuan (half-Turk) overthrew the emperor in 618 and founded a new Tang dynasty (618-906).
The Tang era is divided into two periods. The first period: VII - the middle of VIII is characterized by internal progress and external power of the empire. At that time, there was no state equal to the Tang Empire in the world. She controlled the area from the Pacific Ocean to the Aral Sea. Almost the entire Great Silk Road was in her power. Second period: mid-8th - early 10th century marked by gradual political decline and decentralization. The power of the Tang was based on a monopoly on all economic resources of the country, a powerful army and an excellent state apparatus. The country was divided into 10 provinces, provinces - into districts, districts - into counties. The counties consisted of peasant communities - five-courtyards that performed control and fiscal functions. The administration was headed by officials appointed by the emperor and passed the exams. The power of the emperor - the "Son of Heaven" was unlimited. He was assisted by a Council of three chambers and several departments: tax, military, judicial, public works, which selected officials, was in charge of accounting for the land and population, and monitored the observance of rituals. A special place was occupied by an independent inspector's supervision, he could file a complaint against any official convicted of corruption. Confucian inspectors observed loyalty to the emperor until he sinned against the principles of "good government". Such a system of organizing power existed in China until the beginning of the 20th century. Agriculture was booming on the basis of the allotment system of land tenure, crafts and trade developed, printing appeared, gunpowder began to be used in military affairs, classical poetry prevailed in literature, and the way of life was based on Confucian ethics.
The uprising of the governor of the northeastern province of An Lushan in 755 marked the frontier beyond which the weakening of the empire began. At the same time, she ceded control of the western part of the Great Silk Road to the Arabs. The reforms of First Minister Yang Yan that followed the rebellion allowed the purchase and sale of land and meant recognition of the decline of the allotment system and the victory of private land ownership, which the Chinese peasants did not agree with. The drought of 873 triggered a peasant war led by Haun Chao (881-901). It ended only with the death of the leader, but the Tang Empire also died. 901-960 was marked by the division of the empire between the military leaders and the provincial governors and their enmity among themselves. The army that fought against the Khitan, the new barbarians, proclaimed its commander Zhao Kuanin emperor. Weakened by civil strife, "strong houses" could not resist this. Song Dynasty begins (960-1279)
In Soviet historical literature (Konrad, Nikiforov), the point of view was expressed that the III-X centuries. were the era of transition from slavery to feudalism. Stabilization of the 10th century meant that the new formation was established. The position of modern science (L. S. Vasiliev) is that this concept distorts the meaning of the historical process in the medieval East and, in particular, in China, and one should refrain from it. From an economic and cultural point of view, the life of society in the Song era was rich and active, state-owned manufactories appeared, and merchant shipping was developing. However, the dynasty controlled only the south of the country. In the north, the Khitani created the Liao state based on the Chinese model, in the northwest the Tanguts united into the Xia state, and in the northeast the Jurchens called their state the Jin empire. The Sung government paid them tribute every year in silver and silk. The end of the empire was laid by the Mongol conquest. Destruction in the south was moderate, since Khubilai had already embraced the ideas of state building by Yelyu Chutsay. The Mongol Yuan dynasty (1271-1368) united the north and south of the country under its rule and gradually returned the Chinese officials to the apparatus of power. Merchants suffering from inflation and peasants were not loyal to the Mongols. The uprising of the "red bands" of 1351-1356 expelled the Mongols from the country, and its leader, the former shepherd Zhu Yuanzhang, declared himself emperor of the new Ming dynasty (1368-1644). The Ming era was practically unaware of social upheavals. But since the 16th century. the process of the concentration of land in private hands and the dispossession of the peasantry took on enormous proportions. This led to the longest and most powerful peasant war of 1628-1644, one of the leaders of which was Li Zicheng. The commander-in-chief of the imperial army did not recognize him as emperor and invited the Manchus to help recapture the rebel-held Beijing. Here the new Manchu Qing dynasty (1644-1912) was proclaimed.
A review of the political history of medieval China shows that the country's political system turned out to be capable of recovery after the most severe disasters. The development of Chinese statehood had a cyclical nature of the replacement of centralism by decentralization and the restoration of control over the country by the new ruling dynasty. This cyclical nature is explained by the peculiarities of the socio-economic organization of Chinese society.
Economic practice in China.
Allotment land use system and its evolution
The dynastic cycles were based on the processes associated with the evolution of the Chinese system of land tenure. This system is called allotment, its approval began in the era of Jin. The state, the supreme owner of land in China, divided the main land mass into allotments. Each man received 100 mu (6 hectares) and performed a grain service for this, i.e. he gave to the treasury the twentieth, and sometimes most of the harvest, paid tax on domestic products, mainly yarn, worked for several days a year in public works. Women, old people and children also received allotments, but smaller than men. In the Tang era, this system finally supplanted individual land tenure. Officials and elders kept records and redistribution of land. At the age of 70, the peasant gave his allotment to the community, leaving behind him a manor plot, a garden and a vegetable garden, as well as the virgin lands he had mastered over and above. These plots could be sold. Officials, like the titled nobility, also received allotments. They did not transfer taxes from the peasants to the state, but they kept them for themselves. Over time, the practice of inheritance and alienation of land resumed, the powerful seized allotments and struck out peasants from the tax lists. Privatization began, the treasury became scarce. The state could not cope with peasant unrest. The peasants themselves and the capital's bureaucracy brought order to the country. The new dynasty carried out a new division, a new dynastic cycle began.
During the Ming era, there were two categories of land : state and private. Kazen lands (gungtian) were included in the state land fund in the days of Song and Yuan. To them were annexed lands confiscated by the government by court order, school lands, imperial estates, horse pastures, suburban lands, clover meadows, pastures for cattle , land at the imperial tombs and cemeteries. The lands of the estates (zhuang tian) of princes, princesses, honored officials and relatives of the emperor, nobles, eunuchs, monasteries, official lands of officials, lands of settlements: military, peasant and merchant were also considered state. Everything else is private land.
Intensive agriculture in China was based on artificial irrigation. The urban craft was oriented towards export and the needs of the elite (paper, silk fabrics, fine embroidery, porcelain, gunpowder). The Chinese traded actively both within the country and with their neighbors. Along with the Great Silk Road, there were trade routes to Korea, Japan, Vietnam, Burma, Siberia. The revival of domestic trade begins in the 9th century. The annual fairs are complemented by chains of local markets. 2-3 times a week, not only merchants and usurers gathered in the townships, but hired scribes, acrobats, magicians and storytellers. Pyatidvorka usually sent one person to the market. The early and active development of commodity-money relations, however, did not lead to the formation of capitalism. This required a whole range of conditions. Capitalist evolution was hampered by huge and sparsely populated internal territories, where the intensity of exchange declined, and the profits of traders also declined. The Chinese state became a political obstacle to capitalism. It controlled all types of economic activities, prices and profits of traders, interest on loans. The social structure of medieval society was also not conducive to capitalism.
The social structure of medieval China.
Specificity of the ruling class:
shenshi and their role in society
The medieval Chinese peasantry (lianmin) did not know serfdom in the form of personal dependence; it was allotted, i.e. state. The state did not attach it to the land, the mutual responsibility within the framework of the five-yard community was the controller that prevented the peasant from leaving. However, if there was a replacement for the one who wanted to leave, the community did not put up obstacles. The peasant wars, which took place under the motto "renewal of names", exterminated officials and nobles who had lost their measure in the matter of profit. Thus, they performed the function of social regulation and stabilization of the social system.
The problem of the peculiarities of the development of Chinese cities and townspeople has not been sufficiently studied. It is known that about 10% of the population lived in them, but unlike European cities, they did not try to establish themselves as an independent political force. They were inhabited by officials, soldiers, students of Confucian schools, merchants and artisans. The most powerless were the merchants, since trade and the accumulation of money were considered unworthy pursuits in traditional China. In fact, with the help of money, they established tacit alliances with the bureaucracy, sought appointments and displacements in governments at different levels. The position of the artisans was also not high. Their associations - khans - were not guild organizations, but specialized trading ranks. Crafts and small trade were not separated. The chief of the khan followed the mood of the people, collected taxes, suppressed discontent, in a word, he was included in the system of centralized statehood.
The specificity of the ruling class of medieval China was that there was no aristocracy here. Titled nobles are members of the imperial family and his favorites. The composition of this group changed with the change of the dynasty. Children did not inherit the title of their parents, the degree of their nobility was reduced by a step. The real Chinese elite are shenshi or mandarins (advisors). Their high position in society was not associated with strength or wealth, but with the possession of knowledge. In China, an examination system for filling positions was practiced. The first exam gave the degree of shutsai - teacher; the second is for Juiren, an official in the regional and provincial government bodies. The highest government posts were held by the Jingshi, who passed the third exam. Any person who graduated from the Confucian school and had a certificate stating that there were no people of shameful professions in his family could be admitted to the exams. This method of forming the elite of a society is called meritocracy. It should be recognized as democratic. In medieval China, there were no hard social barriers, and social mobility was quite high. The ruling class of China could not accumulate and pass on from generation to generation what was accumulated, which complicated the fate of capitalism in the country. Nor did he have the ideological prerequisites that the Reformation created in Europe. Confucian ideology does not honor wealth or sanction profit. In the value system, education and knowledge are more important.