Types of communication in practical social psychology. Psychology of social communication

Lecture 2. 3. The phenomenon of communication in social psychology

Questions

1. Communication as a socio-psychological phenomenon. Communication functions.

2. Types of communication.

3. Characteristics of the communicative side of communication.

4. Characteristics of the interactive side of communication.

5. Characteristics of the perceptual side of communication.

Communication as a socio-psychological phenomenon.

Communication functions.

The problem of communication is one of the central ones in social psychology. Each of us lives and works among people. We go on a visit, meet with friends, do some common task with work colleagues, etc. In any situation, we, regardless of our desire, communicate with people - parents, peers, teachers, colleagues. We love some, we are neutral towards others, we hate others, and we talk to others for no reason at all. Need in joint activities leads to the need for communication. It is in joint activities that a person must interact with other people, establish various contacts with them, and organize joint actions to obtain the desired result.

Communication is characteristic of all living beings, but at the human level it takes on the most perfect forms, becomes conscious And mediated by speech. The person transmitting information is called communicator, receiving it - recipient.

The specificity of communication is determined by the fact that in its process the subjective world of one person is revealed to another. In communication, a person self-determines and presents himself, revealing his individual characteristics. By the form of the influences carried out, one can judge the communication skills and character traits of a person, and by the specifics of the organization of the speech message, one can judge the general culture and literacy.

The mental development of a child begins with communication. Especially great importance For mental development The child has his communication with adults in the early stages of ontogenesis. This is the first type of social activity that arises in ontogenesis and thanks to which the child receives the information necessary for his individual development. In communication, first through direct imitation and then through verbal instructions, the child’s basic life experience is acquired.

The concept of “communication” is one of the interdisciplinary categories. It is studied by philosophy, psychology, sociology, and pedagogy. These sciences consider communication as one of the types human activity providing other types of activities (play, work, educational activities). Communication is also a social process, since it serves group (collective) activities and implements social relations. Often communication is reduced only to communication - transmission, exchange of information through language or other sign means.

The category “communication” has been developed in sufficient detail in the domestic psychological science. Thus, B.F. Lomov considers communication as an independent aspect human existence, not reducible to activity. A. N. Leontyev understands communication as one of the types of activity. D. B. Elkonin and M. N. Lisina consider communication as a specific type of activity that arises in ontogenesis. The position of a number of scientists is also close to them (S. L. Rubinstein, L. S. Vygotsky, A. N. Leontiev). B. G. Ananyev points out the importance of communication as one of the determinants of the development of the human psyche. The point of view on communication as an activity of a subject, the object of which is another person, a communication partner, has become widespread (Ya. L. Kolominsky).

Modern psychological and pedagogical science uses various definitions of the concept of “communication”. Here are just a few of them:

1. Communication– the process of establishing and developing contacts between people, which is based on the motivation of the participants, aimed at changing the behavior and personal and semantic formations of the partner.

2. Communication- a complex, multifaceted process of establishing and developing contacts between people, generated by the needs for joint activities and including the exchange of information, the development of a unified interaction strategy, perception and understanding of another person.

3. In a broad sense communication– one of the forms of interaction between social actors, the process of exchange of rational and emotional-evaluative information, methods of activity (skills), as well as results of activity in the form of material things and cultural values.

4. Communication– interaction between two or more people, consisting in the exchange of information between them of a cognitive or affective-evaluative nature.

5. Under communication refers to external, observable behavior in which interpersonal relationships are updated and manifested (Ya. L. Kolominsky).

Robert Semenovich Nemov identifies a number of aspects: content, target And facilities.

Purpose of communication– answers the question “Why does a creature enter into an act of communication?” In animals, the goals of communication usually do not go beyond the biological needs that are relevant to them (warning of danger). For a person, these goals can be very, very diverse and represent a means of satisfying social, cultural, creative, cognitive, aesthetic and many other needs.

Communication means– methods of encoding, transmitting, processing and decoding information that is transmitted in the process of communication from one living being to another. Encoding information is a way of transmitting it. Information between people can be transmitted using the senses (touching the body), speech and other sign systems, writing, and technical means of recording and storing information.

Communication structure. Traditionally, in the structure of communication, researchers distinguish three interconnected sides of communication – communicative side of communication(exchange of information between subjects), interactive side of communication(influencing the behavior, attitudes, opinions of interlocutors during communication, building a general interaction strategy), perceptual side of communication(perception, study, establishing mutual understanding, evaluation by communication partners of each other) (G. M. Andreeva).

B. D. Parygin offers more detailed structure communication:

Subjects of communication;

Communication means;

Needs, motivation and goals of communication;

Methods of interaction, mutual influence and reflection of influences in the communication process;

Results of communication.

Communication functions. According to the ideas of B.F. Lomov, the following three are distinguished in communication: functions: information and communication ( covering the processes of receiving and transmitting information), regulatory-communicative ( associated with mutual adjustment of actions when carrying out joint activities), affective-communicative ( relating to the emotional sphere of a person and meeting the needs for changing one’s emotional state).

A. A. Brudny identifies the following functions communication:

§ instrumental necessary for the exchange of information in the process of management and joint work;

§ syndicated, which finds its expression in the unity of small and large groups;

§ broadcast, necessary for training, knowledge transfer, methods of activity, evaluation criteria;

§ function of self-expression oriented towards finding and achieving mutual understanding.

R. S. Nemov believes that communication is multifunctional in its purpose. Therefore, he highlights the following functions communication:

1. Pragmatic function. It is realized through the interaction of people in the process of joint activity.

2. Formative function. It manifests itself in the process of formation and change in a person’s mental appearance. It is known that at certain stages the development, activity and attitude of a child to the world and to himself depend indirectly on his communication with adults.

3. Confirmation function. In the process of communicating with other people, a person gets the opportunity to know, approve and confirm himself. Wanting to establish himself in his existence and his value, a person seeks a foothold in other people.

4. The function of organizing and maintaining interpersonal relationships. Communication contributes to the organization and maintenance of interpersonal relationships.

5. Intrapersonal function. This function is realized in a person’s communication with himself (through internal or external speech) and contributes to the development of reflection.

Types of communication

Communication can be viewed from various grounds and, accordingly, we should talk about the existence of many types of communication.

So, N. I. Shevandrin identifies the following forms and types of communication:

1.Direct and indirect communication. Direct communication carried out with the help of natural organs given to a living being by nature: arms, head, torso, vocal cords, etc. Indirect communication– communication using written or technical devices.

2.Interpersonal and mass communication. Interpersonal communication is associated with direct contacts of people in groups or pairs with a constant composition of participants. Mass communication- a lot of contacts strangers, as well as communication mediated various types mass media.

3.Interpersonal and role communication. In the first case, the participants in communication are specific individuals. In the case of role communication, its participants act as role bearers (teacher-student, superior-subordinate).

Robert Semenovich Nemov is considering kinds communication on content, goals And means.

*material communication (exchange of objects and products of activity);

*cognitive communication(exchange of information, knowledge);

*conditional communication (impact on physical or mental condition each other);

*motivational communication (exchange of motivations, goals, interests, motives, needs);

*active communication (exchange of actions, operations, abilities, skills).

By goals:

*biological (for the maintenance, preservation and development of the body);

*social (development of interpersonal relationships, personal growth).

By means:

*direct communication (using natural organs given to a living being);

*indirect (using special means and tools for organizing communication);

*direct (personal contacts and direct perception of those communicating);

*indirect (carried out through intermediaries).

Psychologist L. D. Stolyarenko identifies types of communication according to nature of the course:

* “contact of masks” (formal communication when familiar masks are used (politeness, severity, indifference));

*primitive communication (when they evaluate another person as a necessary or interfering object (if necessary, they come into contact, if it interferes, they push away));

*formal-role communication (when both the content and means of communication are regulated, and instead of knowing the personality of the interlocutor, they make do with knowledge of his social role);

*business communication (when the personality characteristics of the interlocutor are taken into account, but the interests of the business are put in the foreground),

*spiritual-interpersonal communication (the type of communication that is observed in friendships);

*manipulative communication (communication aimed at obtaining benefits using various techniques (flattery, intimidation, deception));

*secular communication (its essence is pointlessness, that is, people say not what they think, but what is supposed to be said in a given situation).

Among the types of communication we can highlight nonverbal And verbal. Non-verbal communication does not involve the use of audio speech or natural language as a means of communication. Nonverbal communication is communication through facial expressions, gestures and pantomimes, through direct sensory or bodily contact. These are tactile, visual, auditory, olfactory and other sensations and images received from another person. Most nonverbal forms and means of communication in humans are innate and allow him to interact on emotional and behavioral levels. Many higher animals (dogs, monkeys and dolphins) are given the ability to communicate non-verbally with each other and with humans.

Verbal communication is inherent only to man and, as a prerequisite, presupposes the assimilation language. In terms of its communicative capabilities, it is much richer than non-verbal forms of communication, although in life it cannot completely replace it. The development of verbal communication relies on nonverbal means of communication.

Also in social psychology there are imperative, manipulative And dialogical communication. Let's look at them in more detail.

Imperative communication– this is an authoritarian, directive form of interaction with a communication partner in order to achieve control over his behavior, attitudes and thoughts, forcing him to certain actions or decisions. The peculiarity of the imperative is that the ultimate goal of communication - coercion of a partner - is not veiled. Orders, regulations and demands are used as means of exerting influence. The imperative form of communication can be effectively used in military statutory relations, in relationships of the “superior-subordinate” type in extreme situations, in work under emergency situations. But in intimate-personal, child-parent, pedagogical relationships, the imperative form of communication is extremely unproductive, since the “top-down” attitude is primarily implemented.

Manipulative communication- this is the form interpersonal communication, in which the influence on the communication partner in order to achieve one’s intentions is carried out covertly. As an imperative, manipulation involves the desire to achieve control over the behavior and thoughts of another person. The sphere of “permitted manipulation” is business and business relationship at all.

The symbol of this type of communication was the concept developed Dale Carnegie and his followers. Dale Carnegie(November 24, 1888 - November 1, 1955) - American writer, publicist, educational psychologist, teacher. He stood at the origins of the creation of the theory of communication, translating the scientific developments of psychologists of that time into the practical field. Developed his own concept of conflict-free and successful communication. Dale Carnegie lived by the principle that no bad people. But there are unpleasant circumstances that can be dealt with, and it’s not worth spoiling the lives and mood of others because of them. Main works: “Oratory and influencing business partners” (1926); " Little known facts from the lives of famous people" (1934); “How to Win Friends and Influence People” (1936) more than 5 million copies were sold during the author’s lifetime); “How to Stop Worrying and Start Living” (1948); “How to Build Confidence and Influence People by Speaking in Public.”

Dale Carnegie, American writer, publicist, educational psychologist, teacher. He stood at the origins of the creation of the theory of communication, translating the scientific developments of psychologists of that time into the practical field, developing his own concept of conflict-free and successful communication.

Carnegie was born on November 24, 1888 on a Maryville farm in Missouri. Born into a farmer's family in the American countryside. And although his family lived in great poverty, nevertheless, through his own perseverance, he was able to receive a good education. He became interested in oratory during his school years, actively participating in all kinds of debates, and even then teachers noted his special sociability. Even at school, teachers noted Dale’s special sociability. After graduating from school, Carnegie began working as a delivery boy in Nebraska, then as an actor in New York, and finally decided to study public speaking. The classes were very successful, and Dale decided to start his own practice. While studying at pedagogical college In Warrensburg, the family was unable to pay for his boarding house and Dale rode a horse back and forth every day, covering a distance of six miles. I had to study only during breaks between performing various works on the farm. In addition, he did not participate in many events held in college, since he had neither the time nor the appropriate clothes: he only had one good suit. He tried to make the football team, but the coach did not accept him, citing his low weight. He might have developed an inferiority complex, but his mother, who understood this, advised him to take part in a debating circle, where after several attempts he was accepted. This event in the autumn of 1906, when he was a student in his penultimate year, turned out to be a turning point in his life.

Performances in the circle really helped me gain the necessary faith in my abilities, get the necessary practice in public speaking, and succeed in all disciplines related to it. Within a year of training, Dale won all the top awards in public speaking competitions. During his work, Carnegie gradually developed a unique system for teaching communication skills. This system was so unique that he decided to copyright it, publishing several booklets included in the books “Public Speaking: A Practical Course for Business Men” and “Public Speaking and Influencing Men in Business”, 1926. During Carnegie’s work collaborated with Loweholm Thomas and later published their joint work - “Little Known Facts About Well Known People”, 1934. Teaching, lectures and journalism brought him not only his first popularity, but also allowed him to form his own system of teaching communication skills, including the basic rules of relationships between people . He is persistently engaged in research in this area, as a result of which his system is so unique that he decides to copyright it. Carnegie published several pamphlets, which were initially read avidly by his listeners.

In 1911, he began teaching rhetoric and stagecraft on his own, soon organizing his own school. At the same time, he travels around the country giving popular lectures and publishes essays on various topics. On October 22, 1912, he began lecturing in his first group, organized at the Young Men's Christian Association (YMCA), located on 125th Street in Upper Manhattan. A few months later, his course gained such popularity that instead of the usual rate of two dollars per evening, the HAML directorate began paying him thirty dollars. Having heard about the successes of a young teacher from New York, his course began to be included in adult education programs at HAML centers in neighboring cities. Following this, other professional clubs began to turn to Carnegie with a similar request.

In 1933, Leon Shimkin, chief executive officer of Simon & Schuster, took his author's course in Larchmont, New York. He was impressed not only by the public speaking aspects of the course, but also by the principles of human relationships it contained. Believing that a book on this topic would be in great demand, he suggested that Carnegie systematize all the materials he presented to his listeners and arrange them in the form of a book. On November 12, 1936, his most famous book, How to Win Friends and Influence People, was published - an optimistic collection of practical advice and life stories under the general slogan “Believe that you will succeed - and you will succeed.” you will achieve it." Like previous editions, this book did not reveal any completely new things unknown about human nature, but it contained brief and at the same time succinct advice on how to behave better in order to win the interest and sympathy of others. He convinced readers that anyone and everyone can please, the main thing is to present yourself well to your interlocutor. In less than a year, more than a million copies of the book were sold (during the author’s lifetime, more than 5 million copies were sold in the United States alone). Since then it has been published in many languages ​​of the world. For ten years, the book was on the New York Times bestseller list, which is still an absolute record.

The big secret of the art of dealing with people. There is only one way in the world to motivate someone to do something. Have you ever thought about this? Yes, only one way. And it's about making the other person want to do it. Remember: there is no other way.

Of course, you can force a person at gunpoint to give you his watch. You can force an employee to work by threatening to fire him if he refuses. You can force a child to do what you want with a whip or threat. However, these crude methods are fraught with very undesirable consequences.

The only way I can get you to do anything is if I give you what you want.

What do you want? Famous Viennese scientist doctor Sigmund Freud, one of the most prominent psychologists of the 20th century, says that all our actions are based on two motives - sexual attraction and the desire to become great. The most insightful American philosopher, Professor John Dewey, puts it in slightly different words. He argues that the deepest desire inherent in human nature is “the desire to be significant.” Remember this expression: “the desire to be significant.” This is significant. You will read a lot about this in this book.

So what do you want? Not much, but the little that you really want, you achieve with apparent persistence. Almost every normal adult wants: 1) health and preservation of life; 2) food; 3) sleep; 4) money and things that can be purchased with money; 5) life in the afterlife; 6) sexual satisfaction; 7) the well-being of their children; 8) consciousness of one’s own importance. Almost all of these desires are satisfied - all except one. One desire, almost as strong and powerful as the desire for food and sleep, is rarely fulfilled. This is what Freud calls the “desire to be great,” and Dewey calls the “desire to become significant.”

Nothing else hits a person’s ambition as hard as criticism from superiors. I never criticize anyone. I believe in the power of rewarding people at work. That's why I really want to praise people, and I can't stand scolding them. If I like something, then I am sincere in my assessment and generous in praise."

In manipulative communication, the partner is perceived not as a holistic, unique personality, but as a bearer of certain properties and qualities “needed” by the manipulator. However, a person who uses this type of relationship with others often ends up becoming a victim of his own manipulation. He also begins to perceive himself in fragments, switching to stereotypical forms of behavior, guided by false motives and goals, losing the core of his own life. As noted Everett Shostrom- one of the leading critics of the “Carnegian” approach to communication, the manipulator is characterized by deceit and primitiveness of feelings, apathy towards life, a state of boredom, excessive self-control, cynicism and distrust of oneself and others. One of the most famous works author is “Anti-Carnegie, or manipulator”, which contains useful tips how to recognize manipulative communication and resist it. In general, the professions of teacher and psychologist can be classified as the most susceptible to manipulative deformation. For example, in the learning process there is always an element of manipulation (to make the lesson more interesting, motivate students, attract attention). This often leads to the formation of professional teachers a stable personal attitude toward explanation, teaching, and proof.

Dialogical communication– this is an equal subject-subject interaction, with the goal of mutual knowledge, self-knowledge of communication partners. In the case of dialogical communication, an attitude towards equality is realized. This is only possible if certain rules are followed rules of relationships: 1. communication based on the “here and now” principle; 2. the use of a non-judgmental perception of the partner’s personality, an a priori attitude of trust in his intentions; 3. perception of the partner as an equal, having the right to his own opinions and decisions; 4. the content of communication should include problems and unresolved issues (problematization of the content of communication); 5. You should personalize communication, that is, conduct it on your own behalf (without reference to the opinions of authorities), present your true feelings and desires.

Dialogical communication allows you to achieve deeper mutual understanding, self-disclosure of partners, creates conditions for mutual personal growth.

One type of communication is pedagogical communication. It has both general features and characteristics of this form of interaction, as well as specific features associated with the content of the educational process.

Pedagogical communication– this is a purposeful, specially organized interaction between a teacher and a student, during which there is an exchange of educational knowledge, perception and knowledge of each other, development and mutual influence. Pedagogical communication fulfills a number of specific functions. Among them:

Cognitive (transferring knowledge to students);

Exchange of information (selection and transmission of the information that is necessary);

Organizational (organization of student activities);

Regulatory (establishment of various forms and means of control, influence in order to maintain or change behavior);

Expressive (understanding the experiences and emotional state of students), etc. The issue of pedagogical communication is discussed in more detail in the course of developmental and educational psychologists.

There are rockers who attract fans like a magnet.

Definition communication (Andreeva G.M.)

1) Definition communication.

Communication - a complex process of interaction between people, consisting of the exchange of information, as well as the perception and understanding of each other by partners. Subjects communication are living beings, people. In principle, communication is characteristic of any living beings, but only at the human level is the process communication become conscious, connected by verbal and non-verbal acts. The person transmitting information is called a communicator, and the person receiving it is called a recipient.

A number of aspects can be distinguished in communication (Nemov R.S. Psychology. Book 1: Fundamentals general psychology. - M., Education, 1994.) : content, purpose And facilities. Let's take a closer look at them.

Content communication - information that is transmitted in interindividual contacts from one living being to another gomu. This may be information about the internal (emotional, etc.) state of the subject, about the situation in external environment. The content of information is most diverse if the subjects communication are people.

Target communication - answers the question “For what purpose does a creature enter into an act? communication?". The same principle applies here as was already mentioned in the paragraph on content communication. Animals have goals communication usually do not go beyond the biological needs that are relevant to them. For a person, these goals can be very, very diverse and represent a means of satisfying social, cultural, creative, cognitive, aesthetic and many other needs.

Facilities communication - methods of encoding, transmitting, processing and decoding information that is transmitted in the process communication from one creature to another gomu. Encoding information is a way of transmitting it. Information between people can be transmitted using the boundaries of feelings, speech and other sign systems, writing, and technical means of recording and storing information.

2) Process communication(communications).

Firstly, it consists directly of the act itself communication,communications, in which the communicants themselves participate. Moreover, in the normal case there should be at least two.

Secondly, communicants must perform the action itself, which we call communication, i.e. do something (speak, gesture, allow a certain expression to be “read” from their faces, indicating, for example, the emotions experienced in connection with what is being communicated).

Thirdly, it is necessary to further determine the communication channel in each specific communicative act. When talking on the phone, such a channel is the organs of speech and hearing; in this case, they talk about the audio-verbal (auditory-verbal) channel, more simply - about the auditory channel. The form and content of the letter are perceived through the visual (visual-verbal) channel.

Handshake- a method of conveying a friendly greeting through the kinesico-tactile (motor-tactile) channel. If we learn from the suit that our interlocutor, say, is Uzbek, then the message about his nationality came to us through the visual channel (visual), but not through the visual-verbal channel, since no one communicated anything verbally (verbally).

Definition communication (Andreeva G.M.)

3) Structure communication.

Towards structure communication can be approached in different ways, in this case the structure will be characterized by highlighting three interconnected sides in communication: communicative, interactive and perceptual ( Andreeva G.M. Social Psychology. - M., Aspect Press, 1996.)

So schematically the structure communication we will present it like this:

Communication sidecommunication(or communication in the narrow sense of the word) consists of the exchange of information between communicating individuals.

Interactive side consists in organizing interaction between communicating individuals (exchange of actions).

Perceptual sidecommunication means the process of perception and knowledge of each other by communication partners and the establishment of mutual understanding on this basis.

The use of these terms is conditional, sometimes others use them in a more or less similar sense: in communication there are three functions - information-communicative, regulatory-communicative, affective-communicative (Lomov B.F. Communication and social regulation of individual behavior // Psychological problems of social regulation of behavior, - M., 1976.). Let's look at these three sides communication in more detail.

3 - a) Communication side communication . During the act communication there is not just a movement of information, but a mutual transfer of encoded information between two individuals - subjects communication. Therefore, communication can be schematically depicted as follows: S S. Consequently, there is an exchange of information. But people do not just exchange meanings, they strive to develop a common meaning (Leontyev A.N. Problems of mental development. - M., 1972.). And this is only possible if the information is not only accepted, but also comprehended.

Communicative interaction is possible only when the person sending information (communicator) and the person receiving it (recipient) have a similar system of codification and decodification of information. Those. "Everyone should speak the same language." In the context of human communication, communication barriers may arise. They are social or psychological in nature.

The information itself emanating from the communicator can be motivating (order, advice, request - designed to stimulate some action) and stating (message - takes place in various educational systems).

3 - b) Means of communication.

For transmission, any information must be appropriately encoded, i.e. it is possible only through the use of sign systems. The simplest division of communication is verbal and nonverbal, using different sign systems. Verbal uses human speech as such. Speech is the most universal remedy communication, since when transmitting information through speech, the meaning is least lost communication. We can identify the psychological components of verbal communication - “speaking” and “listening” (Zimnyaya I.A. Psychology of teaching a foreign language at school. - M., 1991.) The “speaker” first has a certain plan regarding the communication, then he embodies it into a system of signs. For the “listener” the meaning is received from communication is revealed simultaneously with decoding.

Definition communication (Andreeva G.M.)

Lasswell's model of the communicative process (Communication and optimization of joint activities. Edited by Andreeva G.M. and Yanoushek Ya.M., Moscow State University, 1987). includes five elements:

WHO?(transmits message) - Communicator

WHAT?(transmitted) - Message (text)

HOW?(transfer in progress) - Channel

TO WHOM?(message sent) - Audience

WITH WHAT EFFECT?- Efficiency.

It is possible to distinguish three positions of the communicator during the communicative process: open (openly declares himself a supporter of the published point of view), detached (keeps himself emphatically neutral, compares contradictory points of view) and closed (keeps silent about his point of view, hides it).

Nonverbal communication.

There are four groups non-verbal means communication:

1) Extra- and paralinguistic (various near-speech additives that give communication a certain semantic coloring - type of speech, intonation, pauses, laughter, coughing, etc.)

2) Optical - kinetic (this is what a person “reads” at a distance - gestures, facial expressions, pantomime)

Gesture- this is the movement of the arms or hands, they are classified on the basis of the functions that they perform: - communicative (replacing speech) - descriptive (their meaning is understandable only in words) - gestures expressing the attitude towards people, the state of a person.

Facial expressions- This is the movement of the facial muscles.

Pantomime- a set of gestures, facial expressions and body position in space.

Proxemics (organization of space and time of the communication process)

In psychology there are four distances communication: - intimate (from 0 to 0.5 meters). People who, as a rule, have close, trusting relationships communicate on it. Information is transmitted quietly and in a calm voice. Much is conveyed through gestures, glances, and facial expressions.

Interpersonal (from 0.5 to 1.2 meters). It is used for communication between friends.

Official business or social (from 1.2 to 3.7 meters). Used for business communication, and the greater the distance between the partners, the more formal their relationship is.

Public (more than 3.7 meters). Characterized by speaking in front of an audience. With such communication, a person must monitor his speech and the correct construction of phrases.

4) Visual contact.

Visual, or eye contact. It has been established that people usually look into each other's eyes for no more than 10 seconds. (Labunskaya V.A. Nonverbal behavior. - Rostov-on-Don, 1979.)

3 - c) Interactive side communication .

This is a characteristic of those components communication, which are associated with the interaction of people, with the direct organization of their joint activities. There are two types of interactions - cooperation and competition ( Andreeva G.M. Social Psychology. - M., Aspect Press, 1996.). Cooperative interaction means Coordination of forces of participants. Cooperation is a necessary element of joint activity and is generated by its very nature.

Definition communication (Andreeva G.M.)

Competition- one of its most striking forms is conflict.

3 - d) Perceptual side communication is the process of people perceiving and understanding each other. All three sides communication closely intertwined with each other, organically complement each other and make up the process communication generally.

4) Communication performs a number of functions in human life:

1. Social features communication

a) Organization of joint activities

b) Behavior and activity management

c) Control

2. Psychological functions communication

a) The function of ensuring psychological comfort of the individual

b) Satisfying the need for communication

c) Self-affirmation function

5) Levels communication.

Communication can occur at various levels:

1. The manipulative level consists in the fact that one of the interlocutors, through a certain social role, tries to evoke sympathy and pity from the partner.

2. Primitive level, when one of the partners suppresses the other (one is a constant communicator, and the other is a constant recipient).

3. The highest level is the social level when, regardless of social role or status, partners treat each other as equal individuals.

6) Types communication (Nemov R.S. Psychology. Volume 1. General Basics psychology. - M., Education, 1994.). Depending on the content, goals and means, communication can be divided into several types.

1.1 Material (exchange of objects and products of activity)

1.2 Cognitive (knowledge sharing)

1.3 Conditional (exchange of mental or physiological states)

1.4 Motivational (exchange of motivations, goals, interests, motives, needs)

1.5 Activity (exchange of actions, operations, abilities, skills)

2. According to goals, communication is divided into:

2.1 Biological (necessary for the maintenance, preservation and development of the organism)

2.2 Social (pursues the goals of expanding and strengthening interpersonal contacts, establishing and developing interpersonal relationships, personal growth of the individual)

3. By means of communication can be:

3.1 Direct (Carried out with the help of natural organs given to a living being - arms, head, torso, vocal cords, etc.)

3.2 Indirect (related to the use of special means and tools)

3.3 Direct (involves personal contacts and direct perception of each other homo communicating people in the act itself communication)

3.4 Indirect (carried out through intermediaries, who may be other people). Communication as interaction presupposes that people establish contact with each other, exchange certain information in order to build joint activities and cooperation.

For communication as interaction to occur smoothly, it must consist of the following stages:

Definition communication (Andreeva G.M.)

1. Establishing contact (acquaintance). Involves understanding another person, introducing oneself to another gomu to a person.

2. Orientation in the situation communication, understanding what is happening, taking a pause.

3. Discussion of the problem of interest.

4. Solving the problem.

5. Ending the contact (exiting it).

List of used literature:

1. Andreeva G.M. Social Psychology. - M., Aspect Press, 1996.

2. Zimnyaya I.A. Psychology of teaching a foreign language at school. - M., 1991.

3. Leontyev A.N. Problems of mental development. - M., 1972.

4. Lomov B.F. Communication and social regulation of individual behavior // Psychological problems of social regulation of behavior, - M., 1976.

5. Nemov R.S. Psychology. Book 1: Fundamentals of general psychology. - M., Education, 1994.

6. Communication and optimization of joint activities. Ed. Andreeva G.M. and Yanoushek Ya. M., Moscow State University, 1987.

Communication can be viewed at different levels. It all depends on what is taken as a basis. That is why there are many classifications of communication levels.

B. Lomov, identifies the following levels of communication: http://psyznaiyka.net/socio-obchenie.html?id=5

• - macro level (a person communicates with other people according to traditions, customs, social relations that have developed);
• - mesa level (communication occurs within the framework of a meaningful topic);
• - micro level (this is an act of contact: question - answer).

Each of these levels can manifest itself in different situations and in different areas: business, interpersonal, role, etc. In particular, it is one thing when partners act as equal participants in communication, and quite another if one of them feels a certain dependence, and especially if inequality begins to appear in the form of pressure, aggression, intimidation, etc.

American psychotherapist and psychoanalytic theorist E. Berne identifies the following levels of communication, or ways of structuring time: rituals (norms of communication), spending time (entertainment), games, intimacy and activity. Each of these levels has its own means of communication. Andreeva, G. M. Social psychology / G. M. Andreeva. M.: Aspect Press, 2010. 364 p.

Analyzing the features of dialogue, A. Dobrovich proposes to distinguish seven levels of communication: conventional, primitive, manipulative-effective, standardized, playful, business and spiritual.

• 1) the first phase - focus on the partner;
• 2) second - mental reflection partner;
• 3) third - informing the partner;
• 4) fourth - disconnection from the partner if the incentives with him have disappeared, or return to the second phase if they remain.

Taking into account the fact that partners act in contact, the scientist calls the first phase of the communicative act mutual direction, the second - mutual display, the third - mutual information, the fourth - mutual disconnection.

The conventional level is characterized by the fact that a person either feels the need for contact and an attitude towards external communication arises in him, which is aggravated by the fact that there is a real partner, or the person does not feel such a need, but since he was approached, he encourages himself to switch to someone who who approached him. http://psyznaiyka.net/socio-obchenie.html?id=5

Subject to contact, the individual accepts in advance the fact that he will either be a listener or a speaker, because by stimulating someone to talk, he should be provided with equal opportunities in communication. At the same time, it is important to grasp the actual role of the partner, as well as one’s own actual role through his eyes. In other words, it is necessary to establish what role expectations the partners have for each other. Andreeva, G. M. Social psychology / G. M. Andreeva. M.: Aspect Press, 2010. 364 p.

However, each partner has the right to confirm or not confirm these expectations. So, mutual information can take the form of confrontation or congruence (mutual agreement). If participants choose confrontation, then communication gradually fades away, leaving partners the right to their own opinions. If they choose the path of congruence, i.e. confirm mutual role expectations, this necessarily leads to a growing disclosure of their “role fan” (a set of psychological roles that a person performs when interacting with another person) by each of the partners.

However, when concluding the conversation, each partner takes care not to impose his persona on the other. Of course, contact at a conventional level requires partners to have a high level of communication and can be considered optimal for solving personal and interpersonal problems. Real communication practice gives levels that are located above and below the conventional level. Lowest level of communication

A. Dobrovich calls it primitive, and between the primitive and conventional levels there are two more: manipulative and standardized. Andreeva, G. M. Social psychology / G. M. Andreeva. M.: Aspect Press, 2010. 364 p.

The characteristics of a person who descends to the primitive level of communication can be designated as follows: for him, the interlocutor is not a partner, but a necessary or unnecessary object, it follows that the actual role of the partner is not captured by the subject. Therefore, perception patterns are put into play, with the help of which a given “object” can be described, for example, whether it is large or small, what kind of clothes it wears, age, etc. These external signs are extremely important, because if, for example, the interlocutor is small, you can not stand on ceremony with him, but confidently take a position “from above”.

That is, the subject expresses his sympathy to the one he likes, and does not sympathize with the one he doesn’t like. Of course, if confrontation took place during the exchange of information, then the subject ends the contact with a weak interlocutor with quarrels and ridicule, and with a strong interlocutor - with apologies and threats (threats are made when the partner has moved a dangerous distance. In the case of congruence, the subject received what was required from the interlocutor and does not hide his boredom. http://psyznaiyka.net/socio-obchenie.html?id=5

A subject who chooses a manipulative level of communication is close in his approach to the other partner to a primitive participant in the dialogue, and in his performance capabilities he is close to the conventional level of communication. The general characteristics of the manipulator are: next view: For him, a partner is an opponent in a game that must be won. In this case, winning means benefit: if not material or vital, then at least psychological.

The standardized level of communication is very different from the primitive and manipulative levels of communication, but “falls short” of the conventional one for the reason that real role interaction does not occur at this level. The very name of the level suggests that communication here takes place according to certain standards, and not according to the partners’ mutual understanding of each other’s actual roles. In other words, we are talking about “contact masks”: “zero mask” (I don’t touch you - you don’t touch me), “tiger mask” (mask of aggressiveness), “hare mask” (so as not to incur the anger or ridicule of others ) and others. Zazykin, V. G. Psychology of insight / V. G. Zazykin. M.: RAGS, 2010.- 130 s.

The gaming level of communication is located “above” the conventional one. He is endowed with the fullness and humanity of the latter, but surpasses it in the depth of content and richness of shades. People reach this level only with those whom they know at least a little and for whom there is a certain feeling - if not mutual, then one that is not overshadowed by disappointments.

In the phase of focusing on the partner, there is in advance a keen interest in the personal characteristics of the interlocutor, in his “role fan”, imbued with sympathy for the person. In the partner's reflection phase, a heightened perception of his “role fan” occurs. In the phase of informing the partner, the subject tries to be interesting to his partner, and therefore he spontaneously “plays” in order to “look interesting.” You can react in different ways: joyfully accept your interlocutor’s judgments, not destroy contact (this is congruence), or go into confrontation with your partner, pinch him, make him angry, surprised, etc.

By external signs“game” - confrontation is similar to manipulation, however, the feelings that the subject has towards the partner are significantly different: the manipulator is indifferent or unkind to the other, winning and self-affirmation are an end in itself for him, the partner’s grief only pleases him, and the “player” builds contact on the other’s indifference interlocutor. In the fourth phase - mutual exclusion - everything is clear to the partners without words, that is, there is no requirement for mutual performance of farewell rituals. As a rule, in communication at the gaming level, partners “get bogged down in one another”; in their contact, a “second plan” arises - something that is felt, but not called in words. http://psyznaiyka.net/socio-obchenie.html?id=5

The business level of communication does not involve ordinary business contacts, but a type of human activity. Therefore, real business contacts do not necessarily occur at this level; they often take the form of communication at a manipulative or standardized level.

The features of business communication itself are clearly visible during the analysis of the contact phases. Zazykin, V. G. Psychology of insight / V. G. Zazykin. M.: RAGS, 2010.- 130 s. First phase(partner-oriented) is characterized by the fact that the interlocutor is particularly interested in the partner as a participant in joint activities, as a person who can help. Second phase(mutual display) shows the sensitivity of partners to each other, the sharpness of perception on both sides of the mental and business activity of the interlocutors, their involvement in solving a common problem.

It is in such conditions that people stop thinking about what kind of appearance they have and reveal their individual roles, the main thing is business. This is also important third phase- mutual information. Fourth phase characterized by external dryness, behind which internal warmth is felt.

In general, when communicating on a business level, people take from contacts not only certain “fruits” of joint activities, but also a stable sense of trust and mutual affection. And if communication at the gaming level is predominantly festive, then at the business level it is much more serious, deeper and at the same time distinguished by everyday life. Zazykin, V. G. Psychology of insight / V. G. Zazykin. M.: RAGS, 2010.- 130 s.

The spiritual level is considered the highest level of human communication, because at this level the partner is perceived as a bearer of the spiritual principle, which awakens high feelings: from friendship to the opportunity to get closer to highest values humanity. At the same time, spirituality is ensured not by the selection of topics for conversation, but by the depth of dialogical penetration of people into each other’s thoughts, i.e. a conversation on an ordinary topic can be more spiritual than a conversation about literature. Andreeva, G. M. Social psychology / G. M. Andreeva. M.: Aspect Press, 2010. 364 p.

In general, to summarize the analysis of levels, it should be emphasized that in real interaction, communication does not occur at one level or jumps from one to another.

Communication is one of the three main areas of life human society along with labor activity and knowledge. Acting as a necessary element of people’s work activity and the real existence of their consciousness. communication permeates the entire material and spiritual life of society, organizes and ensures the normal functioning of the social organism. In other words, it represents one of the necessary prerequisites for the existence of human society. Subsequently, it becomes a necessary and essential aspect of any type of human activity. With the development of society, material and spiritual culture, communication turns into an independent type of human activity, occupying an important place in people’s lives and satisfying their increasingly complex emotional and moral needs.

In addition, communication is a necessary condition and important factor existence and socialization of man as an individual. In the process of communication, each individual is simultaneously both a subject and an object of interaction. Since one of the communicating becomes the object of influence of another person, he becomes to the same extent an objective circumstance of the life of this individual, the second - a circumstance of the life of the first. This means that communication itself, being a circumstance of life for individuals, along with work activity, turns into a decisive factor in the development of society as a whole and the formation of each individual. K. Marx and F. Engels in “German Ideology” call communication one of the main factors of social development.

What place does communication occupy in the system of social relations?

Social relations are the basis and express the essence of direct and indirect interaction of people, specific communication relations between them. K. Marx and F. Engels, creating scientific sociology, reduced the actions and relations of individual individuals to the relations of large social groups, to class relations, and in the endless chaos of social relations they revealed deep recurring phenomena, dividing all social relations into material and ideological, highlighting production in as basic, primary. This, of course, does not mean that direct personal and all other relationships and forms of communication between people did not exist for the classics of Marxism-Leninism and did not deserve attention and study. In the theory of Marxism, the approach to man has always been different from the economic, political, ideological and from the point of view of direct human, psychological, personal relationships. V.I. Lenin drew attention to the need to study specific relationships, since they form real personalities. K. Marx and F. Engels in “German Ideology”, along with communication in its universal meaning as the totality of all objective social relations, also talk about individual communication between people as their specific connections and relationships that develop in practical life. Individuals enter into communication with each other not as pure selves, but as individuals who are at a certain stage of development of their productive forces and needs, and since this communication, in turn, determined production and needs, it is the personal, individual attitude of individuals to each other to each other, their mutual relationship as individuals created - and daily recreates - existing relationships." That is, in reality, in everyday life, only personal relationships between individuals take place. But this is only the visible side of social relations, the essence of which is hidden from direct observation. In them and through them, objective social, material and ideal relationships are realized, which constitute the real essence of individual relationships between individuals. Where the real objective interests of people intersect, where they are objectively placed in mutual relations with each other, there they necessarily enter into relations of communication - this is real reality. Specific individual relationships between people are necessary, inevitable and have a universal character. Through them there is a direct connection between the individual and society. They constitute communication relationships. Consequently, communication in the sociological aspect is a specific individual relationship of universal connection and interaction, which is a form of existence of objective social relations.

Communication relations are individually selective in nature, depend on the subjective aspirations of individuals, express their will, their personal attachments, likes and dislikes.

In socio-psychological terms, communication is a complex and multifaceted process. First of all, it acts as an information process, that is, as a process of transmission and perception of information by participants in communication, not only verbal, but also emotional. Communication is also the psychological relationship of people to each other, relationships of affection, trust, sympathy, antipathy. This is also emotional contact, which is expressed in the emotional consonance of communicating people - empathy, sympathy, complicity. Communication is at the same time an act of expression of will; this is expressed in the desire of the participants in communication to influence each other and manifests itself in the form of suggestion, persuasion, request, order, etc. Communication is also the establishment of mutual understanding between those communicating. The internal basis and necessary prerequisite for mutual understanding is the possibility of identification, mutual similarity of communicating people to each other, the ability to imagine oneself in the place of another. On this basis, empathy and complicity grow. We can talk about a high level of mutual understanding, which is characterized by the adequacy of mutual assessment and the coincidence of the system of social and individual meanings, and about a low level of mutual understanding, when the systems of social and individual meanings of those communicating are sharply different or there is no coincidence in the level of mutual assessment. Mutual understanding is especially necessary in interpersonal communication.

Thus, communication between people in the socio-psychological aspect is a complex, complex phenomenon. Beginning with psychic contact, communication develops into complex psychological process interaction, which has its own psychological prerequisites and conditions, dynamics of development and a certain result. In its essence, it represents the concrete implementation of social connections between people, as a real manifestation of a system of social relations. In other words, communication, arising on the basis of social relations of people and being in its essence a form of their implementation, practically, concretely acts as a complex psychological interaction, as a unique psychological process of establishing relationships between people. The content of the communication process itself is objectively determined by the grounds and situation of communication and at the same time depends on the subjective goals, desires, and ideas of its participants. The nature and results of communication are also influenced by the individual psychological properties of communicating people. Therefore, the study of communication between people cannot be carried out without taking into account its objective social content and at the same time presupposes the analysis of specific psychological characteristics its subject, nature and results.

Whatever the person was called: and homosapiens(reasonable person) homofaber(producing person), and homohabilis(skillful person) homoludens(person playing). I think with no less justification it can be called homocommunications- person communicating.

The need for communication, according to psychologists, is one of the basic (basic) human needs. The importance of communication as a basic need is determined by the fact that “it dictates the behavior of people with no less power than, for example, the so-called vital (life) needs.” Communication is a necessary condition for the normal development of a person as a member of society, as an individual, a condition for his spiritual and physical health, a way of knowing other people and himself. Although human communication has always been the basis of people’s social existence, it became a direct object of psychological and socio-psychological analysis only in the 20th century.

Category of communication in psychology: content, structure and functions

Social contacts between people are represented by activity and communication.

There are differences between communication and activity as types of human activity. The result of the activity is the creation of any material or ideal product. The result of communication is the mutual influence of people on each other. Activity and communication, despite their differences, are interconnected aspects of human social activity. Activity can neither arise nor be carried out without intensive communication. Communication is a specific type of human activity. In real human life, communication and activity as forms of social activity appear in unity, but in a certain situation they can be realized independently of each other.

• formation of certain patterns and patterns of behavior;
• human interaction;
• mutual influence of people on each other;
• information exchange;
• formation of relationships between people;
• mutual experience and understanding of each other;
• formation of an image of a person’s inner “I”.

In psychology, communication is defined as a process of interaction between people, consisting in the exchange of information between them of a cognitive or emotional-evaluative nature, during which interpersonal relationships arise, manifest themselves and are formed. Communication involves the exchange of thoughts, feelings, and experiences.

When studying communication, it is distinguished: content, purpose, means, structure, functions and forms of communication.

• material - exchange of products and objects of activity;
• cognitive - knowledge Exchange;
• active - exchange of actions, operations, skills;
• conditioned - exchange of psychological or physiological states;
• motivational - exchange of motives, goals, interests, motives, needs.

Purpose of communication

People enter into communication in pursuit of certain goals. Target communication - This that is why a person has this type of activity. The goals of communication can be very diverse.

The purpose of communication may lie in itself, then communication is an end in itself, a means of satisfying the need for communication.

The purpose of communication may be outside the interaction of subjects itself, then we are dealing with business communication , serving as a way to organize and optimize one or another type of objective activity: production, scientific, commercial, etc.

The purpose of communication can also be to introduce communication partners to each other’s values ​​and experiences, as presented in personal communication, which is mainly centered around psychological problems internal character, those interests and needs that deeply affect a person’s personality.

It is difficult to give an exhaustive classification according to the purposes of communication, taking into account the diversity of human needs (social, cultural, cognitive, creative, aesthetic, needs for intellectual growth, moral development, biological, etc.), for the sake of satisfying which people enter into communication.

Communication means

Communication means are ways of encoding, transmitting, processing and decoding information transmitted in the process of communication.

Means of communication are divided into verbal (verbal), represented by speech, and nonverbal (non-verbal), represented by gestures, facial expressions, sound of voice, gaze, touch, etc.

Communication structure

Communication structure can be characterized by identifying three interrelated aspects in it: perceptual, communicative and interactive (Fig. 16).

Rice. 16. Communication structure

Perceptual side communication is the process of perception, cognition and understanding by people of each other with the subsequent establishment of certain interpersonal relationships on this basis.

Communication side communication consists of the mutual exchange of information between people, the transfer and reception of knowledge, ideas, opinions, feelings.

Interactive side communication consists of the exchange of actions, i.e. in the organization of interpersonal

Communication functions

Acting as a powerful consumer of human energy, communication is at the same time an invaluable biostimulator of human life and spiritual aspirations.

In accordance with this, affective-communicative, information-communicative and regulatory-communicative communication functions.

Affective-communicative (perceptual) function, which is based on the perception and understanding of another person, a communication partner, is associated with the regulation of a person’s emotional sphere, since communication is the most important determinant emotional states person. The entire spectrum of specifically human emotions arises and develops in the conditions of human communication - either a rapprochement of emotional states occurs, or their polarization, mutual strengthening or weakening.

Information and communication function communication consists of any type of exchange of information between interacting individuals. The exchange of information in human communication has its own specifics:

• firstly, the exchange of information takes place between two individuals, each of whom is an active subject (as opposed to a technical device);
• secondly, the exchange of information necessarily involves the interaction of thoughts, feelings and behavior of partners.

Regulatory-communicative (interactive) function communication is the regulation of behavior and the direct organization of joint activities of people in the process of their interaction. In this process, a person can influence motives, goals, programs, decision-making, execution and control of actions, i.e. on all components of their partner’s activities, including mutual stimulation and behavior correction.

The role and intensity of communication in modern society are increasing: the number of people engaged in professional activities related to communication is constantly increasing. At one time, the pragmatic J. Rockefeller, well understanding the importance of communication for business activities, said: “The ability to communicate with people is the same commodity bought for money, like sugar or coffee. And I am willing to pay more for this skill than for any other product in this world.”

But what does it mean to be able to communicate? This means being able to understand people and build your relationships with them on this basis, which presupposes knowledge of the psychology of communication.

The essence of communication and its forms

The source of the need for communication is the collectivist, social nature of man, his inherent need not only for individual, but also for joint activity. It was this generic feature given to man by nature that helped him survive and establish himself among other animals more physically stronger than humans.

It is admitted that one of the national characteristics Russian people have a high level of development of this quality. Russian thinkers called him community, conciliarity, squad, brotherhood(A.S. Khomyakov, B.S. Soloviev, N.F. Fedorov, etc.). It was this national trait of the Russian spirit that helped Russia survive in the most tragic moments of its history. In this spirit of collectivism, figures of Russian culture saw one of the main differences between Russian self-awareness and Western culture, the basis of which is the spirit of individualism. Of course, at the turn of the 20th-21st centuries, during the years of post-Soviet reforms, this feature of Russian spirituality weakened significantly, although, apparently, it did not disappear completely.

- a complex multifaceted process of establishing and developing contacts between individuals and their groups. This process is generated by the needs of people for joint activities, which multiply their strength many times over. There are three components to communication:

• communication side or exchange of information;
• interactions or exchange of actions:
• mutual perception or perception and evaluation of a partner.

All three aspects of communication help optimize the joint activities of people, lead to rapprochement, as well as the development and improvement of their personal qualities.

However, this rapprochement has its limits and boundaries. It cannot be unlimited, because no matter how close people become to each other in the process of their interaction, they nevertheless always remain separate systems both in their interests and in their forms of behavior.

Each personality, no matter how close contact with other people it may be, retains its physical and spiritual autonomy, originality, remaining, as the ancients said. " microcosm." those. a whole world of unique thoughts, feelings, interests.

Therefore, any contacts or communication between people rarely proceed without difficulties, problems, and conflicts. These problems arise both in small social groups, families, in work collectives, and at the level of society as a whole, between large social groups, classes and ethnic groups. And these problems and difficulties are resolved, again, only in the process of the same communication, in which both management structures different levels.

Due to the many difficulties and conflicts that arise in the course of human interactions, the forms of human communication turn out to be infinitely diverse.

Forms of communication are classified based on different criteria. So, if we take as the basis for classification criterion for the direction of communication, then it can be divided into two types:

• vertical communication, for example, between parents and children, boss and subordinates;
• horizontal communication an example of which is the communication of brothers close in age; communication between work colleagues of equal status.

If we take as the basis for the classification of types of communication the nature of his goals, then its forms can be distinguished:

• communication as an end in itself. for example, communication between friends, relatives;
• communication as a means achieving some goal external to him: this is exactly what any business, including managerial, pedagogical communication is. Here the goal is beyond the communication process itself: it is to achieve the goals of the organization, enterprise, educational institution etc. And finally, we can distinguish types of communication according to the criterion composition of its participants.

Then the main types of communication will look like this:

• communication according to the scheme "man-nature", an example of which could be activities such as hunting, fishing, tourism, relaxing in the country, communicating with pets, etc.
• communication according to the scheme man-thing" typical examples of which are performing activities in the field of material production, trade, and activities such as collecting; this form of communication can take painful forms in the form of excessive passion for acquiring and accumulating things, the so-called “materialism”:
• communication according to the scheme man-man”, which is the most psychologically intense and complex. Since this form of communication is distinguished by its special spirituality, dynamism, liveliness, it is sometimes spoken of as the highest luxury, accessible to people. But the greatest difficulties of communication are associated with this same form of communication.

Many different problems arise in the process of family communication, as well as in the course of relationships between people in work collectives. It is known that the “cross-cutting” function of the leaders of work collectives is psychological impact on individual employees and the group as a whole, their motivation to actively work to achieve the goals of the organization in the process of constant and diverse management communication with people.