Laboratory experiment in psychology merits and demerits. Advantages and disadvantages of the observation method

An experiment in sociology is a method of collecting and analyzing empirical data aimed at testing hypotheses about causal relationships between social phenomena. In a real experiment, this test is carried out by the experimenter's intervention in the natural course of events: he creates or finds a certain situation, activates a hypothetical cause and observes changes in the situation, fixes their correspondence or inconsistency with the hypothesis put forward.

Hypothesis- this is a presumed model of the phenomenon under consideration. On the basis of this model, the phenomenon under study is described as a system of variables, among which an independent variable (experimental factor) stands out, subordinate to the control of the experimenter and serving as a hypothetical cause of certain changes in the dependent variable. Non-experimental variables are properties and relationships that are essential for the phenomenon under study, but since their influence in this experiment not investigated, they must be neutralized (isolated or set permanent).

Social experiment has two main functions: achieving an effect in practical transformative activities and testing a scientific hypothesis. In the latter case, the experimentation procedure is entirely focused on the cognitive result. Experiment acts as the most powerful way to test an explanatory hypothesis.

Experimental analysis logic was proposed by J. Stuart Mill back in the 19th century. and since then has not undergone significant changes.

A basic requirement of any scientific experiment- elimination of uncontrollable factors. J. Mill completely denied the possibility of scientific experimentation in social sphere due to the difficulty of aligning multiple variables.

The main features social experiment are:

Active intervention of the researcher in the system of the studied phenomena;

Systematic introduction of a relatively isolated experimental factor, its variation, possible combination with other factors;

Systematic control over all significant determining factors;

The effects of changing the dependent variables should be measured and unambiguously reduced to the influence of the independent variables (experimental factor).

The structure of a social experiment can be represented as follows:

1. Experimenter. This is usually the researcher or group of researchers who design and conduct the experiment.

2. Experimental factor (or independent variable) - a condition or system of conditions that are introduced by a sociologist. The independent variable must be, first, controllable, i.e. its direction and intensity of action should be in accordance with the program settings; secondly, controlled, if its quality and quantitative characteristics are disclosed within the experiment program.

3. Experimental situation - a situation that is created in accordance with the research program for the experiment. The experimental factor is not included in the conditions of the experimental situation.

4. An experimental facility is a group of persons who have agreed to participate in pilot study

Differ the following types experiments:

a) by the nature of the objects - economic, pedagogical, legal, aesthetic, sociological, socio-psychological. Each of the experiments differs from each other in specificity (for example, in sociology, an economic experiment is understood as the direct influence of specific changes economic conditions on the consciousness of people and the change in their interests);

b) according to the specifics of the tasks - research and practical. In the course of a research experiment, a hypothesis is tested that contains scientific information that has not yet found sufficient confirmation or has not yet been proven at all;

c) natural (field) and laboratory experiments.

Experiment program is a description of the experimentally tested hypothesis and the procedures for testing it (the system of variables, the experimental factor, the situation (conditions) of the experiment, the experimental and control groups, the experimental instrumentation).

The experimental toolkit includes a protocol, diary and observation card.

The main resulting document of the experimental method is experiment protocol, in which should be reflected following positions:

1. The name of the topic of the experiment.

2. The exact time and place of the event.

3. A clear formulation of the hypothesis being tested.

5. Description of dependent variables and their indicators.

6. Essential description of the experimental group.

7. Characteristics of the control group and the principles of its selection

8. Description of the experimental situation.

9. Characteristics of the experimental conditions.

10. The course of the experiment, ie. his setting:

A) before the introduction of the experimental factor;

B) in the process of entering it;

C) after its introduction;

D) after the end of the experiment.

11. Evaluation of the purity of the experiment and the instruments used.

12. Conclusion on the reliability of the hypothesis.

13. Other findings.

14. Data on the drafters of the protocol and the degree of their agreement.

15. Date of signing the minutes.

Since the experimental method is more complex than others, mistakes are often made in its application. Let's name some of the most common:

1. The experiment is carried out to obtain information that can be obtained in other, simpler ways.

2. For an experiment, an included or standardized non-included observation is issued.

3. No organic connection conducted experiment with the purpose, objectives and hypotheses of the study.

4. Ambiguity or other significant significant inaccuracy in the formulation of the hypothesis submitted for experimental verification was admitted.

5. The theoretical system of variables is built incorrectly, causes and effects are confused.

6. The experimental factor (independent variable) is chosen arbitrarily, without taking into account the fact that it should play the role of a determinant and be controllable by the researcher.

7. The independent and dependent variables were not adequately reflected in the empirical indicators.

8. The effect on the dependent variables of factors not included in the independent variable is underestimated.

9. The experimental situation is not clearly defined, due to which the experiment is carried out in violation of its conditions.

10. Subjective assessments of the experimental situation prevail over objective characteristics.

11. During the experiment, it became clear that important properties experimental group that were not known prior to its initiation.

12. The control group does not represent an analogue of the experimental group in terms of parameters essential for the study.

13. Control over the course of the experiment was weakened and / or ineffective.

14. The instrumentation of the experiment is aimed only at fixing certain data (like an observation instrument), and not at maintaining the purity of the experiment.

15. The conclusions of the experimenters are adjusted (fitted) to the hypothesis without sufficient grounds.

The advantage of the method social experiment - identifying cause-and-effect relationships.

Disadvantages of the method are the complexity and cost of the organization.

22. SOCIOLOGICAL SURVEY METHOD: GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS, VARIETIES, WAYS TO INCREASE THE RELIABILITY OF INFORMATION.

Sociological survey Is a method of obtaining primary sociological information based on direct or indirect communication between the researcher and the respondent in order to obtain the necessary data from the latter in the form of answers to the questions posed.

There are two types of survey: questioning and interviewing.

1. Questioning - it is a written survey in which the communication between the researcher and the respondent is mediated by a questionnaire.

Group questionnaire - it is a method of a one-time written survey of a group of respondents, gathered at a certain time and place (audience), and carried out in accordance with the requirements of the sampling procedure.

When conducting individual Questioning with the help of a handout questionnaire, the sociologist conducting the survey either hands the questionnaire to the respondent, agreeing on the date of its return upon the next meeting, or, having explained the purpose of the survey and the rules for filling out the questionnaire, waits for the respondent to complete this procedure and return the questionnaire.

Depending on the nature and method of uniting the respondents There are several options for surveys in groups: 1. Handout type of survey when the questionnaire is handed out to the respondents for individual filling by each of them, we have only characterized that. 2. Postal question, in which the questionnaire, by prior consent, is sent to potential respondents and received by the researcher by mail. 3. Telephone surveys, carried out through telephone communication with respondents, have become quite widespread in recent times... The sampling frame for such a survey is usually telephone directories, in which all subscribers of apartment telephone numbers are listed in alphabetical order. One of the main requirements for a sociologist in such a survey is the ability to arouse the respondent's interest in the research topic and support it during the interview. The main advantage of a telephone survey is its efficiency and low cost. 4. Press polls- this type of mass poll, which is carried out through the publication of a questionnaire in the press with a simultaneous request addressed to readers to answer the published questions. 5. Sociometric survey- a specific survey method used in the study of direct contacts and interpersonal relationships in small social groups. According to the level of competence of the persons involved in the survey, there are two types of surveys:Mass poll- it is a way to study the opinions of different groups of the population, who are not specialists in the problem under study, about various areas public life, the phenomena, processes, events taking place in them. Expert survey - it is a type of research in which experts are interviewed on the problem under study. Its specificity lies in the fact that this survey, in contrast to the mass survey, is not anonymous, since it is focused on active cooperation between the researcher and the respondent in clarifying the essence of the problem posed. At the same time, the selection of experts according to their level of competence is very important.

Sociological questionnaire - it is a system of questions, united by a single research concept, aimed at identifying the opinions and assessments of respondents and obtaining information from them about social facts, phenomena, processes.

The questionnaire is strictly structured: The first part of the questionnaire called introductory, Second part of the questionnaire called basic. It contains blocks of questions aimed at obtaining the necessary information. Third part of the questionnaire called with a passport... It turns out socially - demographic characteristics of respondents: gender, age, marital status, education, social background, profession, education, place of study and so on.

Types of questions: By content the questions formulated in the questionnaire are divided into the following types:Questions about facts the purpose of which is to obtain information about social phenomena and processes. Questions about opinions, with the aim of clarifying the opinions of the respondents regarding certain social, economic, political events existing in the country, in the region, at the enterprise, etc. situations. Knowledge questions, focused on finding out what and: to what extent the respondent knows about the problem, situation, etc. of interest to the researcher. Questions about grades, aiming to find out the respondents' assessment of certain phenomena, processes, events. Questions about respondent attitudes to any processes, phenomena, authorities, parties, etc. Questions about motives, focused on clarifying the subjective ideas of respondents about the motives of their actions or assessments. According to his logical direction The questions in the sociological questionnaire are also divided into several types:

Main questions - researcher gets most information of interest to him about the studied social object. Control questions are used to check the stability, correctness, consistency and sincerity of the respondent's answers. Filter Questions are used in cases where the required information can be obtained not from the entire population of respondents, but only from a certain part of it. Each such block of questions opens with a filter question, which is followed by a link to which question the interviewer should go to in order to select the carriers of the necessary information. By nature of responses or filling technique questionnaires are distinguished by the following types of questions: 1. Closed questions, varieties: question menu. This is a question in which the respondent is offered a number of answers and he can choose several of them.

Dichotomous (alternative) questions suggest answers of the respondents on the principle of "yes / no", are mutually exclusive, and the alternatives themselves must be balanced. 2. Open-ended question. 3 Semi-closed questions(+ other) .5 Direct questions - this is a type of question that allows you to find out the position or attitude to any problem, event, fact, etc. 6. Indirect questions - these are the questions that are asked in such cases when the respondent is not quite comfortable asking about something directly or there is an assumption that they will not receive sincere answers.

2. Interviewing Is a method of obtaining primary sociological information through direct conversation between the interviewer and the respondent. The procedure for sociological interviewing includes: 1) choosing an object; 2) determining the place and time of the interview; 3) recording the answers of the respondents; 4) the final design of the materials and their theoretical generalization.

Types of interviews: 1. Free (non-standardized) interview - this is a long, sometimes up to 2-3 hours, interview between the interviewer and the respondent, which is carried out according to general program research without rigorous detailing of questions.

2. Standardized (formalized) interview in the form of certain blocks of closed questions, accompanied by certain hints for answers. 3. Semi-standardized interview - a method of obtaining information from respondents, which combines the features of both formalized and informal interviews when interviewing specialists - experts on the problem under study.

According to the procedure interviews are subdivided into: 1. Individual interview - it is a way of collecting empirical sociological information, which is carried out by the interviewer in his one-on-one “face-to-face” conversation with the interviewed person. 2. Group interview - This is a way of obtaining information when the interviewer communicates with a whole group of respondents, but listens to their answers to the questions posed from each one in turn, individually. 3. Panel interviews represent the process of repeated, repeated interviewing of the same respondents on the same questions at regular intervals - six months, a year, three years, etc. The purpose of this method of interviewing is to check for changes in opinions, positions, value judgments, value orientations surveyed persons on the problem under study. 4. In-depth interview - These are interviews focused on obtaining in-depth information, rich in a large amount of content, both about social events and actions of people, including the respondents, and about internal motives, inclinations, motives for actions and assessments expressed by the interviewees. 5. Focused interviews it is the collection of information on a highly specific issue, most often used in marketing research. By type of respondents interviews are: 1) with a responsible person or a very famous person; 2) with an expert; 3) with an ordinary respondent.

Recording the responses of the respondents... Methods: recording during a conversation, recording from memory, mechanical sound recording using a tape recorder.

Ways to Improve Information Reliability: Reliability sociological information - a qualitative and quantitative characteristic of research data, with the help of which it is established: the validity (validity) of information, procedures for analysis and collection of information, their compliance with theoretical and methodological requirements; stability of information, i.e. reproducibility and similarity of measurement results under different conditions. Credibility research results - a characteristic of their quality, the correspondence of the conclusions made to the actual state of the object under study depends on the reliability of the data and the correctness of the theoretical conclusions.

23. Methodological support of the survey: its types and features in different methods poll.

In sociology, it is customary to distinguish between written polls (questionnaires) and oral (interviewing), face-to-face and correspondence (postal, telephone, press), expert and mass, selective and continuous (for example, a referendum), national, regional, local, local, etc.

Questioning. According to the number of respondents, a distinction is made between group and individual questionnaires. At the venue, a questionnaire survey at home, at work and in target audiences (visitors to shops, exhibitions, etc.) is distinguished.

According to the method of distribution of the questionnaires, there are handouts (distributed to the respondents by the questionnaire himself), postal (sent by mail), press questionnaires (published in a newspaper or magazine). Various combinations the named signs form many varieties of the questionnaire survey.

A type of continuous survey is the census, in which the entire population of the country is surveyed.

A selective survey (as opposed to a continuous survey) is a more economical and no less reliable method of collecting information, although it requires sophisticated methods and techniques. Its basis is a sample population, which is a reduced copy of the general population. The general population is considered the entire population of the country or that part of it that the sociologist intends to study, and the sample is the set of people interviewed by the sociologist directly.

Interviewing is a method of obtaining primary sociological information through direct, targeted conversations between the interviewer and the respondent.

Types of interviews. The interview can be conducted at the place of work (study) or at the place of residence (home) - depending on the nature of the problem and the goal. According to the technique of conducting the interview, it is divided into formalized (standardized) and free (non-standardized).

Analysis of publications containing results sociological research, shows that almost 90% of the data available in them was obtained using one or another kind of sociological survey.

№ 24 Questioning. The essence of the method, features of the conduct, disadvantages.

Questionnaire- this is a written survey, in which communication between the researcher and the respondent is mediated by the questionnaire. The peculiarity of the questionnaire survey is that the respondent independently works with the questionnaire: he understands the question, thinks over and independently registers the answer. Questioning by the method of conducting can be written in person and by correspondence (postal). According to the type of conduct, an express survey is distinguished, group or individual, postal or press (newspaper). The popularity of this method is due to its efficiency and economy. V short term with a small number of interviewers, it does not require a significant amount of time and financial costs. Questioning can be group and individual. The group questionnaire survey is widely used at the place of study, work. Provides full refund of questionnaires. Individual questioning is a method of conducting a one-on-one survey with a questionnaire. Sociological questionnaire- a system of questions united by a single research concept, aimed at identifying the opinions and assessments of respondents and receiving information from them. The questionnaire should not be too long. Its filling time for an adult is 40-45 minutes, for a student - for 10 minutes. smaller. Security seats, handles. The task of the interviewer is friendliness, politeness ... In case of refusal, try to convince, but not put pressure on the person.

The advantage of the questionnaire is that the respondent is free to choose the answer to the question, to express his opinion, in the choice of the answer to the question. The influence of the researcher on the course and the result of the questionnaire is minimized. In addition, the survey procedure itself ensures complete anonymity, confidentiality of information and a complete absence of communicative, psychological barrier between the questioner and the respondent. Its main drawback is the impossibility of clarifying, specifying the respondent's answer, and explaining the content of the question.

Observation and experiment are methods that are quite often used in marketing research either independently or in combination with others to solve marketing problems and confirm hypotheses put forward. For example, observation forms the basis of virtually all qualitative research.

Observation in marketing research is a method of collecting primary marketing information about the object under study by observing selected groups of people, actions and situations. At the same time, the researcher directly perceives and registers all factors related to the studied object and significant from the point of view of the research objectives.

Observation can be classified according to the most different reasons:

· Depending on the control elements (controlled or uncontrolled);

· Depending on the position of the observer relative to the object (included or not included);

· By the degree of formalization of observation (structured or unstructured);

· According to the terms of the organization of observation (field or laboratory).

Carrying out technology. Observation in marketing research can be aimed at achieving various goals. It can be used as a source of information for building hypotheses, serve to test data obtained by other methods, with which you can get additional information about the object under study.

The variety of observation methods is determined by the approaches to their implementation.

Uncontrolled observation is carried out in real life situations, it is carried out only general description the social atmosphere in which the observed phenomenon or event occurs.

Controlled observation aims to collect primary information to create a more accurate picture or test certain hypotheses. Control, as a rule, is carried out by increasing the number of observers and comparing the results of their observations, as well as through intensifying observations - conducting a series of observations of the same object.

You can monitor:

· For a certain group of people;

Behind a certain process in different groups of people;

· Behind a certain process in a certain group of people.

Accidental observation is the observation of a previously unplanned phenomenon, activity, situation.

Field observation is carried out in a real life situation. Under laboratory observation conditions environment are determined by the researcher himself. Most often it is carried out in studies of an experimental design and, as a rule, is reduced to fixing changes that occur as a result of the action of experimental factors.

Non-included observation is a type of observation in which the researcher is, as it were, away from the observed situation, and when the observation is turned on, he himself participates in the process under study, is in contact with the observed people.

Unstructured observation is a type of observation in which the researcher does not determine in advance which elements of the studied process (situation) he will observe. The task of this type of observation is to study the object as a whole or its main components.

Structured observation builds on pre-designed elements of the process being studied.

Depending on the type of observation, its elements are planned:

· observed(who are they, how many there are, what are their relationships in this situation, what is the connection between them, etc.);

· situation(where the observed situation takes place, what kind of social behavior this situation encourages, which hinders);

· goal(is there any formal goal for which the participants gathered or they happened to be here by chance, is there an informal goal, are the goals of the participants in the situation compatible or antagonistic);

· social behavior(what and how the participants in the situation do, what are their motives, how the observed acts, what are the tension, constancy, emotionality, duration of this form of behavior, what is its effect);

· frequency and duration(when the situation arose and how long it lasted, the uniqueness of this situation, how often it occurs, what causes it, how typical it is).

After the purpose of the observation and its main elements have been determined, the observation itself is carried out. The fixation of the observation results can be performed in the form of: a) a short-term recording, carried out "hot on the trail", as far as the place and time permit; b) cards used to register information regarding the observed persons, phenomena, processes; c) the observation protocol, which is an extended version of the card; d) an observation diary, in which all the necessary information, statements, behavior of individuals, own thoughts, difficulties are systematically entered day after day; e) photo, video, sound recording.

If necessary, the observation results are recorded in documents and duplicated using technical means(audio, video equipment). The use of technical means makes it possible to improve the quality of the analysis of the observation, since during the observation the researcher may not notice, miss or misinterpret the behavior of the observed. Revisiting helps avoid mistakes and omissions.

When drawing up an observation document, it is necessary to provide following conditions that significantly affect the accuracy and reliability of the information received:

· The consistency of dividing the object of observation into its constituent elements, corresponding to the organic nature of the object and allowing to recreate the whole from the parts;

· The adequacy of the terms used in the grouping and analysis of the information received;

· Unambiguous interpretation of the selected elements of the object of observation.

Disadvantages of surveillance:

· Observations are limited by the time of the events;

· It is impossible to cover all social facts by direct observation;

· Emotional coloring of human perceptions and the inevitability of influence on the results of observation of the social experience of the observer himself;

· The influence of the interaction between the observer and the object of observation;

· The influence of the very fact of the observation on the observed situation.

Requirements for the observer. In addition to such qualities as attention, patience, the ability to record changes in the observed situation, one of the main requirements for an observer is the requirement of conscientiousness.

The observer must continuously monitor his actions so that their influence on the observed situation and, therefore, its change were minimal.

It is essential that each observer has received appropriate training. Training the observer involves simultaneously developing the ability to see meaningful actions, as well as the ability to remember and keep accurate records.

We must not forget that at any given moment a person is able to simultaneously perceive from five to ten discrete units. If we are talking about a sufficiently wide area of observation, it is advisable to entrust the work to several observers, while strictly distributing functions.

An important stage in the preparation of the observer is the development of instructions. A well-prepared instruction facilitates the work of observers and unifies the material they collect.

The instructions give precise instructions as to the criteria by which certain actions, events, phenomena will be brought under one or another category. It also emphasizes the need to record strictly in accordance with the existing categories. The instruction should also contain requirements for the way of recording the observed events; it may contain explanations of how to use the applicable measurement scales.

If the recording requires an interpretation of the intentions of the persons under study, then the instructions should either indicate the principle, or list the indicators on the basis of which the observer will make his judgments. All this is necessary in order for all observers to evaluate the observations as equally as possible.

Experiment - is that the researcher changes the value of one element, dependent or independent variable, in order to observe the effect of this change on another element or dependent variable. The purpose of any experiment is to test hypotheses about a causal relationship between phenomena. Experiment in marketing research is not often done. This is a rather complicated and expensive method.

Experiments vary:

· By the nature of the object and subject of research;

· The specifics of the task;

· The nature of the experimental situation;

· The logical structure of the proof of the hypothesis.

In turn, according to the nature of the research object, they also differ real and mental experiments. In contrast to real experiments, mental verification is carried out not on real phenomena, but on information about them.

Experiments are distinguished according to the specifics of the task. scientific, applied, projective, retrospective. A real experiment is always projective; mental, however, is usually retrospective, directed to the past: the researcher manipulates information about the events that have taken place, tries to test hypotheses about the causes of the effect.

Experiments are distinguished by the nature of the experimental problem controlled and uncontrolled. The results of uncontrolled experiments are significantly influenced by non-experimental factors, the nature and degree of influence of which are unknown. A controlled experiment involves the equalization of all conditions on the experimental and control object, periodic measurement of the values of both experimental and non-experimental variables. Controlling variables means repeatability of the experiment.

According to the logical structure of evidence, hypotheses distinguish between experiments parallel and serial. In a parallel experiment, the proof is based on a comparison of the states of two objects (groups of people) - experimental and control at the same time (the experimental group is the group that was influenced by the experimental factor, the control - where this effect was not). In a sequential experiment, there is no control group. The proof of the hypothesis in this type of experiment is based on a comparison of the states of the investigated object before and after the influence of the "factor".

Application of the experiment in marketing research. The scope of the experiment can relate to any of the elements of marketing. An experiment can be used to study the impact on demand of factors such as packaging, inclusion service, various advertising images, pricing policy etc. For example, if you need to identify the impact on the consumer of advertising, the experiment is carried out as follows. Two similar groups are created (by gender, age, income, etc.). One of the groups is shown a television advertisement for a new type of product, while the second group does not see this advertisement. Then a trial sale is carried out new products and the purchase ratio is measured.

Disadvantages of the experimental method. The experimental groups involved in the study are very limited. It follows from this that the experiment is not very suitable for obtaining results that could be extended to society as a whole or to large social groups, it does not allow you to see a "cut" of large-scale social processes.

Within the framework of the experiment, it is possible to study the influence of one or a limited number of factors on changes, but it is impossible to take into account all the factors that real life a large number of... Therefore, the results of the experiment have low reliability and are more susceptible to all kinds of biases.

Experiment distortion

The influence of the experimenter's personality on the result of the experiment

Pygmalion Effect (or Rosenthal Effect)

Pygmalion was a Greek sculptor who, according to legend, sculpted a statue of such a beauty that he fell in love with it and begged the gods to revive it. The American psychologist Rosenthal (1966) named after Pygmalion the phenomenon when the experimenter unconsciously acts in such a way that he "prompts" the subjects to the correct answer, consistent with his assumption. The experimenter is interested in confirming his hypothesis, therefore he seeks to influence the data in the direction of confirming his assumptions.

Influence of states, inclinations of the subject on the result psychological research

Hawthorne effect

If the subject knows the accepted hypothesis, then it is likely that they will, involuntarily or intentionally, behave in accordance with the experimenter's expectations.

Also, the reason for the distortion of the results may be the condition of "inspiration" of the subjects caused by the very fact of their participation in the experiment. Wanting to prove that they were not chosen by chance, they show increased results.

The Zayonts effect (or audience effect) 1965

In the presence of other people, the subject realizes additional motivation - the desire is liked by other people. This unaccounted for motivation leads to an increase in the results or to anxiety of the subject, which affects the dynamics of the dependent variables.

The presence of the audience affects the learning rate of the subject. At first, the presence of spectators confuses the subject, after mastering the solution of the problem or, if physical effort is required, the audience makes things easier.

Placebo effect

It is the result of instilling the action of a factor into the subjects. If the subjects are told that some influence can have consequences for their activity, then in their activity the subjects show such a deviation.

Barnum effect

T. Barnum argued that people tend to take descriptions or general assessments of their personality at face value, if these assessments are presented under a scientific, magical or ritual sauce.

Ways to prevent distortion in the experiment:

1. Application "Blind method"- exclusion of subjective factors depending on the experimenter. For example: when conducting an experiment to investigate the violation of the reaction rate, accuracy of perception, and other characteristics when using drugs, the experimenter should not know in which group cigarettes with drugs, and in which group, ordinary cigarettes are offered to the subjects.

2. Application "Double blind method" will help to avoid distortions in the experiment from the influence of factors depending on the experimenter and the subject.

3. Instructions should be given as indifferently as possible.

4. Explaining the objectives of the study helps to reduce the likelihood that the subject will come up with his own goal and in this direction will distort (underestimate, increase) the indicators. Usually, incomplete information is given, rather than the true purpose of the experiment, to study natural reactions.

5. For control, you can use the post-experimental interview in order to find out what the subject assumed during the study.

Quasi-experiment -(Latin prefix quasi - reminiscent of something) a research plan in which the experimenter refuses full control over the variables due to its impracticability objective reasons... This type includes studies with a level of control that is insufficient to substantiate a conclusion about a causal relationship between variables. For example: a correlation study, the purpose of which is to establish statistically significant relationships between various properties of an object or process. Despite the presence of statistically significant values, the reason may be out of touch.

Survey

Survey – method of psychological research, containing a number of questions, the answers to which can be given in writing or orally.

Conversation - a method of obtaining information based on verbal (verbal) communication in a dialogue.

Questionnaire - a means for obtaining primary sociological and socio-psychological information on the basis of verbal (verbal) communication. Eg: the subject informs about himself: age, profession, education, place of work, position, marital status, etc.

“-“ allows you to know the opinion, not the reality.

Questionnaire - a method in which the subject is asked a series of written questions.

Types of questions

Closed: suggest a standard answer: yes, no, I don't know, it's hard to say.

Thunderstorm is it scary?

Open: suggest a free-form, quality-oriented response.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY METHODS

First of all, one should distinguish between quantitative and qualitative research methods.

Quantitative include methods for which the main procedures are measurement, categorization and coding .

Experiment

To reduce the influence of these factors, there are two possibilities: increasing control and creating new techniques. The gain in control is associated with the choice of the experimental scheme. In addition, special procedures are created, for example, blind method and double blind method... When the blind method is used, the subject is simply deceived, i.e. give incorrect information about what the research is being done for. In the double-blind method, the experimenter himself, interacting with the subjects, does not know what effects were exerted on the subject and whether they were exerted at all.

Natural experiment carried out in a natural environment, at school, hospital or outdoors, during professional activity, communication and interaction with other people.

Research in a natural environment allows you to overcome the main disadvantage of a laboratory experiment, the inability to generalize with a real situation. Also, in most cases field study participants are unaware that they are participating in an experiment... But even when they know that they are involved in research, it is not comparable to the feeling of danger and suspicion that arises in the laboratory.

The main disadvantages natural experiment are

- inability to control side variables,

- -difficulty changing the independent variable and measuring the dependent.

Experiment planning includes the following stages:

At first, hypothesis formulation, definition and operationalization of the studied variables.
Secondly, selection of experimental design, procedures for controlling side variables and drawing up a representative sample.
third, choice statistical methods to analyze the received data taking into account the chosen experimental scheme.

But it is not always possible to organize an experiment... * Imagine that you want to test the hypothesis that correct methods upbringing have a beneficial effect on the psyche of a developing person, and, becoming an adult, people have better mental fitness, and easily adapt to social environment... Or, the more a person is tall, the more successful they are in their professional activities. It may be suggested that people with aptitude for the humanities are lagging behind in the natural sciences. An active experiment cannot be conducted to test these hypotheses. In some cases, this is practically impracticable (you cannot vary height, abilities, gender, etc.), in others it is unethical (you cannot force parents to use bad practices education).

Hypothesis- this is a presumed model of the phenomenon under consideration. On the basis of this model, the phenomenon under study is described as a system of variables, among which an independent variable (experimental factor) stands out, subordinate to the control of the experimenter and serving as a hypothetical cause of certain changes in the dependent variable. Non-experimental variables are properties and relationships that are essential for the phenomenon under study, but since their influence is not investigated in this experiment, they must be neutralized (isolated or set constant).

Experimental analysis logic was proposed by J. Stuart Mill back in the 19th century. and since then has not undergone significant changes.

A basic requirement of any scientific experiment- elimination of uncontrollable factors. J. Mill completely denied the possibility of scientific experimentation in the social sphere due to the difficulties of aligning numerous variables.

The main features of a social experiment are:

Active intervention of the researcher in the system of the studied phenomena;

Systematic introduction of a relatively isolated experimental factor, its variation, possible combination with other factors;

Systematic control over all significant determining factors;

The effects of changing the dependent variables should be measured and unambiguously reduced to the influence of the independent variables (experimental factor).

The structure of a social experiment can be represented as follows:

1. Experimenter. This is usually the researcher or group of researchers who design and conduct the experiment.

2. Experimental factor (or independent variable) - a condition or system of conditions that are introduced by a sociologist. The independent variable must be, first, controllable, i.e. its direction and intensity of action should be in accordance with the program settings; secondly, controlled, if its qualitative and quantitative characteristics are revealed within the experimental program.

4. An experimental object is a group of people who agreed to participate in an experimental study.

The following types of experiments are distinguished:

a) by the nature of the objects - economic, pedagogical, legal, aesthetic, sociological, socio-psychological. Each of the experiments differs from each other in specificity (for example, in sociology, an economic experiment is understood as the direct influence of specific changes in economic conditions on the consciousness of people and a change in their interests);

c) natural (field) and laboratory experiments.

The experimental toolkit includes a protocol, diary and observation card.

The main resulting document of the experimental method is experiment protocol, in which the following positions should be reflected:

1. The name of the topic of the experiment.

2. The exact time and place of the event.

3. A clear formulation of the hypothesis being tested.

5. Description of dependent variables and their indicators.

6. Essential description of the experimental group.

7. Characteristics of the control group and the principles of its selection

8. Description of the experimental situation.

9. Characteristics of the experimental conditions.

10. The course of the experiment, ie. his setting:

A) before the introduction of the experimental factor;

B) in the process of entering it;

C) after its introduction;

D) after the end of the experiment.

11. Evaluation of the purity of the experiment and the instruments used.

12. Conclusion on the reliability of the hypothesis.

13. Other findings.

14. Data on the drafters of the protocol and the degree of their agreement.

15. Date of signing the minutes.

Since the experimental method is more complex than others, mistakes are often made in its application. Let's name some of the most common:

1. The experiment is carried out to obtain information that can be obtained in other, simpler ways.

2. For an experiment, an included or standardized non-included observation is issued.

3. There is no organic connection between the conducted experiment and the purpose, objectives and hypotheses of the study.

4. Ambiguity or other significant significant inaccuracy in the formulation of the hypothesis submitted for experimental verification was admitted.

5. The theoretical system of variables is built incorrectly, causes and effects are confused.

6. The experimental factor (independent variable) is chosen arbitrarily, without taking into account the fact that it should play the role of a determinant and be controllable by the researcher.

7. The independent and dependent variables were not adequately reflected in the empirical indicators.

8. The effect on the dependent variables of factors not included in the independent variable is underestimated.

9. The experimental situation is not clearly defined, due to which the experiment is carried out in violation of its conditions.

10. Subjective assessments of the experimental situation prevail over objective characteristics.

11. The experiment revealed important properties of the experimental group that were not known before it began.

12. The control group does not represent an analogue of the experimental group in terms of parameters essential for the study.

13. Control over the course of the experiment was weakened and / or ineffective.

14. The instrumentation of the experiment is aimed only at fixing certain data (like an observation instrument), and not at maintaining the purity of the experiment.

15. The conclusions of the experimenters are adjusted (fitted) to the hypothesis without sufficient grounds.

The advantage of the method social experiment - identifying cause-and-effect relationships.

Disadvantages of the method are the complexity and cost of the organization.

Laboratory experiment in psychology merits and demerits. Advantages and disadvantages of the observation method

Experiment

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